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a guide
to the
of
recent
mammal
collections
Stephen L. Williams,
Rene' Laubach, and
Hugh H. Genoways
Carnegie Museum of Natural History
Special Publication No. 4
1
i
A GUIDE TO THE MANAGEMENT
OF RECENT MAMMAL COLLECTIONS
STEPHEN L. WILLIAMS
Collection Manager, Section of Mammals,
Carnegie Museum of Natural History
RENE LAUBACH
Director of Education,
Des Moines Center of Science and Industry
HUGH H. GENOWAYS
Curator, Section of Mammals,
Carnegie Museum of Natural History
CARNEGIE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 4 PITTSBURGH, 1977
CARNEGIE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 4
Pages I-I05, figures 1-43, appendixes A, B, C, D, E.
Issued June 17, 1977
Price, $8.50 a copy
Cover design by Kemon N. Lardas
©1977 by the Trustees of Carnegie Institute, all rights reserved.
Carnegie Museum of Natural History
4400 Forbes Avenue
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213
CONTENTS
Introduction 5
Acquisitions 6
Laws and Ethics 6
Considerations Prior to Acquisition 7
Sources of Acquisition 8
Institutional Staff and Associates 8
Students 9
Exchanges 9
Purchases 9
Gifts 10
Deposition of Voucher Specimens 10
Permanent and Long Term Loans 10
Processing 10
Accessioning 10
Cataloging 11
Identification II
Organization and Arrangement 12
Recording 18
Numbering 18
Processing Data 18
Labels 18
. Files 18
Computerization 20
Processing Specimens 27
Fluid-preserved Material 27
Skins 28
Skeletal Material 28
Cleaning by Maceration 28
Cleaning with Chemicals 29
Cleaning with Living Organisms 29
Final Preparation 31
Special Items 31
Installation 31
Storage 32
Skin and Skeletal Material 34
Fluid-preserved Material 41
Special Items 43
Type Specimens 43
Teaching Collections 43
Domestic Mammals 45
Whole Mounts and Trophy Heads 45
Special Osteological Collections 46
Microscope Slides 46
Frozen Materials 46
Casts and Replicas 48
Miscellaneous 48
Documents 48
Written Records 48
Maps 49
Photographic Items 49
Tapes 49
Maintenance 49
Insurance 51
Skin and Skeletal Material 54
Fumigation 54
Carbon disulphide 54
Ethylene dichloride 55
Paradichlorobenzene 55
Naphthalene 56
DDVP 56
Tanned Hides 56
Degreasing 56
Specimen Refurbishing and Repair 57
Fluid-preserved Material 58
Fluids 58
Refurbishing and Repair of Alcoholic Material 58
Miscellaneous Maintenance 58
Updating Records 58
Utilization 60
Internal Usage 60
Staff and Visitor Usage 60
Intra-institutional Loans 60
External Usage 62
Conclusion 68
Acknowledgments 68
Literature Cited 69
Appendix A 72
Appendix B 95
Appendix C 103
Appendix D 104
Appendix E 105
INTRODUCTION
In North America there are almost 400 Recent
mammal collections that collectively store and main-
tain over two and one-half million specimens
(American Society of Mammalogists, 1974; Choate
and Genoways, 1975). These collections are con-
tinuously growing in size and in number, and are a
valuable resource for many disciplines, particularly
those fields affiliated with education, systematics,
environmental studies, wildlife biology,
parasitology, and biomedicine (Genoways et al.,
1976). As a result, considerable time, money, and
space are often devoted to provision of proper
storage, maintenance, and utilization of these collec-
tions (Irwin et al., 1973; Conference of Directors of
Systematic Collections, 1971).
With the growth and development of Recent
mammal collections, numerous ideas concerning
collection management have been conceived. Some
aspects, such as collecting and preparing specimens,
have received considerable attention, and thus have
become improved and more or less standardized.
Other areas, such as cataloging procedures, collec-
tion arrangement, and fumigation, have received no
attention, or at best, have been discussed on occasion
in some obscure publication. As a result, very little
change has occurred in these areas and the techniques
utilized may be quite diverse between collections.
This paper represents an effort to compile relevant
literature, techniques, and ideas that concern various
aspects of North American Recent mammal collec-
tions. To prevent a biased presentation, detailed
questionnaires dealing with most phases of collection
management were sent to several curators of Recent
mammal collections. The collections of those that
responded to the questionnaire represent a diversity
of size, geographic region, place of professional staff
training, and institutional affiliations, and include
the following: Royal Ontario Museum (ROM), 100
Queens Park, Toronto; National Bird and Mammal
Laboratories (USNM), National Museum of Natural
History, Washington, D.C.; Museum of Vertebrate
Zoology (MVZ), University of California, Berkeley;
Museum of Wildlife and Fisheries Biology (WFBM),
University of California, Davis; Museum of Natural
History (UCONN), University of Connecticut,
Storrs; Florida State Museum (FSM), University of
Florida, Gainesville; Wildlife Laboratory Collection
(PUWL), Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana;
Museum of the High Plains (MHP), Fort Hays Kan-
sas State College, Hays; Museum of Natural History,
University of Kansas (KU), Lawrence; Museum of
Zoology, University of Michigan (UMMZ), Ann Ar-
bor; James Ford Bell Museum of Natural History
(MMNH), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis;
Vertebrate Museum (VMKSC), Kearney State
College, Kearney, Nebraska; American Museum of
Natural History (AMNH), Central Park West at 79th
Street, New York; Museum of Natural History
(OSMNH), Oregon State University, Corvallis; Car-
negie Museum of Natural History (CM), 4400 Forbes
Avenue, Pittsburgh; Texas Cooperative Wildlife
Collection (TCWC), Texas A & M University,
College Station; The Museum (TTU), Texas Tech
University, Lubbock; Puget Sound Museum of
Natural History (UPS), University of Puget Sound,
Tacoma, Washington; Zoological Museum
(UWZM), Noland Zoology Building, University of
Wisconsin, Madison. From this diversity, it is hoped
that most ideas, techniques, and procedures used in a
majority of the Recent mammal collections are
represented. It is further hoped that this publication
will serve as a guide to the management of Recent
mammal collections.
The format of this guide generally follows the
sequence of the procedures of incorporating
specimens into the collection. This sequence basically
involves acquisition, processing, storage, maintenan-
ce, and utilization (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Generalized flow chart of collection man-
agement procedures used in collections of Recent
mammals. For additional details see Figs. 2, 8, 35,
36, and 39.
5
6
ACQUISITIONS
LAWS AND ETHICS
Prior to the acquisition of any material for a
Recent mammal collection, it is absolutely necessary
to be aware of all laws and regulations relevant to
collecting, possessing, transporting, and conducting
transactions involving biological specimens
(Genoways and Choate, 1976). The most important
law in the United States concerning acquisition of
such material is the Lacey Act of 1903, which states:
“(a) Any person who —
(1) delivers, carries, transports, or ships, by any
means whatever, or causes to be delivered, carried,
transported, or shipped for commercial or non-
commercial purposes or sells or causes to be sold
any wildlife taken, transported or sold in any man-
ner in violation of any Act of Congress or regula-
tion issued thereunder, or
(2) delivers, carries, transports, or ships, by any
means whatever, or causes to be delivered, carried,
transported, or shipped for commercial or non-
commercial purposes or sells or causes to be sold in
interstate or foreign commerce any wildlife taken,
transported, or sold in any manner in violation of
any law or regulation of any State or foreign coun-
try; or
(b) Any person who —
(1) sells or causes to be sold any products manu-
factured, made, or processed from any wildlife
taken, transported, or sold in any manner in viola-
tion of any Act of Congress or regulation issued
thereunder, or
(2) sells or causes to be sold in interstate or for-
eign commerce any products manufactured, made,
or processed from any wildlife taken, transported,
or sold in any manner in violation of any law or
regulation of a State or a foreign country, or
(3) having purchased or received wildlife import-
ed from any foreign country or shipped, transport-
ed, or carried in interstate commerce, makes or
causes to be made any false record, account, label,
or identification thereof, or
(4) receives, acquires, or purchases for commer-
cial or noncommercial purposes any wildlife —
(a) taken, transported, or sold in violation of any
law or regulation of any State or foreign country
and delivered, carried, transported, or shipped by
any means or method in interstate or foreign com-
merce or (b) taken, transported, or sold in viola-
tion of any Act of Congress or regulation issued
thereunder, or
(5) imports from Mexico to any State, or exports
from any State to Mexico, any game mammal,
dead or alive, or part or product thereof, except
under permit or other authorization of the Secre-
tary or, in accordance with any regulations pre-
scribed by him, having due regard to the require-
ments of the Migratory Birds and Game Mammals
Treaty with Mexico and the laws of the United
States forbidding importation of certain live mam-
mals injurious to agriculture and horticulture;”
[shall be in violation of the Lacey Act and shall
be subject to the penalties prescribed. . .(18
U.S.C. 43.)]
Although this law is relatively rigid, it is possible to
work within its limitations, providing that proper
procedures are followed and appropriate permits are
secured. To insure that all requirments are fulfilled
for collecting, possessing, and transporting
biological specimens, or conducting transactions in-
volving them, it is recommended that the appropriate
federal agencies (for example. Department of
Agriculture, Department of Commerce, Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of
Interior) and state or foreign country governments be
contacted for information, laws, and permits
(Genoways and Choate, 1976; McGaugh and
Genoways, 1976). Because of legal responsibilities as
defined by the Lacey Act in acquiring material for
the collection, it is strongly recommended that re-
cords be maintained to document the legality of all
acquisitions. In fact, for situations involving federal
permits, maintenance of records is required by the
law, which states:
‘‘From the date of issuance of the permit, the per-
mittee shall maintain complete and accurate rec-
ords of any taking, possession, transportation,
sale, purchase, barter, exportation, or importation
of wildlife pursuant to such permit. Such records
shall be kept current and shall include names and
addresses of persons with whom any wildlife has
been purchased, sold, bartered, or otherwise trans-
ferred, and the date of such transaction, and such
other information as may be required or appropri-
ate. Such records, unless otherwise specified, shall
be entered in books, legibly written in the English
language. Such records shall be retained for 5 years
7
from the date of issuance of the permit.” (CFR
13.46)
In addition to stringent laws, Recent mammal
collections are also governed by a code of ethics that
emphasizes the maintenance of professional stand-
ards. The ethics of an institutional collection depend
upon the individual. The standards followed by the
individual are the foundation of standards for the in-
stitution. It is necessary, therefore, for the individual
to adhere to a strict code of ethics by making a con-
scientious effort to do accurate and thorough work,
acting in a responsible and dependable manner, and
encouraging others, particularly subordinates, to
establish a similar set of standards. Although
adherence to ethics begins with the individual, efforts
have been made to set guidelines for maintaining
professional standards in acquiring and managing
Recent mammal collections (American Society of
Mammalogists, 1974; Grinnell, 1922; Hairston,
1970). Basically, these guidelines include:
1) Respect for all laws and regulations
2) Having a purpose for collecting specimens
3) Limiting collecting efforts to avoid adverse ef-
fects on populations or species
4) Avoiding excessive collecting (beyond the
needs of the collecting purpose)
5) Obtaining maximum use and information
from all specimens collected
6) Insuring proper care and availability of all
specimens collected
7) Promoting accuracy and order in systematics
collections
8) Maintaining and improving relations with
people associated and concerned with the col-
lecting of biological specimens.
Finally, curators of Recent mammal collections
have responsibilities to fulfill before an acquisition is
completed. Not only must they maintain legal and
ethical standards in dealing with incoming material
they must also evaluate the use or scientific value of
such material. Material without any practical
utilization or scientific value, or that has
questionable authenticity, should not be accepted for
any reason. The responsibility for accepting in-
coming material is further influenced by physical
limitations. There must be an unbiased awareness of
the cost, time, and space required to process and
maintain the incoming material (Anderson, 1973).
For most collections and acquisitions, this is a minor
problem. But when proper care for any particular
acquisition cannot be provided, the material should
be deposited at a collection where the requirments
can be met.
CONSIDERATIONS PRIOR TO
ACQUISITION
Before specimens are obtained by the institution, a
basic knowledge and planning of the functions of
Recent mammal collections are necessary to promote
better management of the collection. For this reason,
written procedures for all aspects of the collection
should be prepared and made available to everyone
associated with the collection. Many procedures have
received considerable attention through publication
and have become standardized among most Recent
mammal collections. For instance, descriptive
procedures for scientific preparation of speciments
for the collection are common in the literature (An-
derson, 1965; De Blase and Martin, 1974; Hall, 1962;
Knudsen, 1966; Kung et al., 1970; Setzer, 1963).
Although many collection procedures have been
published, there are many phases of collection
operations that have not been described. Further-
more, individual collections may have unique
situations not discussed in the literature (for exam-
ple, procedures for writing collecting localities). For
these reasons, a collection should develop and
distribute its own set of information, instructions,
and policies, particularly for processes that may be
variable or questionable among different collections.
Such information will prove useful in standardizing
and organizing procedures and training personnel.
An example of specific information and instructions
that are regularly distributed to those associated with
the mammal collection at Texas Tech University in-
cludes the following guidelines for documentation.
The data for each specimen should include sex,
reproductive condition, collecting locality, exter-
nal measurements, date of death, name of prepara-
tor, and preparation number. If the collector of
the specimen is not the preparator, then the name
of the collector should also be included. The for-
mat for recording data (with the exception of local-
ity) will follow the style used for mammals by Hall,
1962 (Collecting and Preparing Study Specimens
of Vertebrates, Misc. Publ., Univ. Kansas Mus.
Nat. Hist., 30:1^).
All localities in field notes and on specimen tags
will be written in a form with the more general lo-
cality descriptions preceding the more specific lo-
cality descriptions (for example, Texas: Lubbqck
Co.; Lubbock or Nebraska: Dundy Co.; 4 mi N, 2
mi W Parks). The reasons for using this format are
8
that the style has already been established at Texas
Tech University, and that this form expedites data-
capture efforts for computerized information re-
trieval.
For Canada, Mexico, and the United States, the
first locality description will be the name of the
state or province. For all other countries the first
locality description will be the name of the country
(for example, Texas: Lubbock Co.; Lubbock or
Chihuahua: 10.5 km W Cuauhtemoc or British
Columbia: 12 mi N, 3 mi E Prince George or Hon-
duras: 7 km S San Pedro Sula). It is felt that the
states of Canada, Mexico, and the United States
are familiar enough to justify the omission of the
name of the country.
There will be no documentation of localities
based on road junctions (with other roads, rivers,
railroads, etc.). Such localities are difficult to
find, particularly for workers not familiar with the
area. In addition, such designations are subject to
change, in name or geographical location of roads.
Further complications may also occur when a road
forms more than one junction with a given feature
within a restricted area.
Localities should be taken from specific refer-
ence points — towns, cities, or possibly natural fea-
tures (for example, Guadalupe Peak) — that occur
within the same political boundaries used to de-
scribe the collecting locality. Specific reference
points should be reasonably permanent and should
be indicated on most general road maps. If it
proves much more desirable to use a specific refer-
ence point that occurs within a different political
boundary than that of the collecting locality, the
following style should be used (for example, Tex-
as: in Jeff Davis Co.; 5 mi S Kent). The county
listed should be the county where the collecting lo-
cality occurs, although the specific reference
point (Kent) actually occurs in a different county
(Culberson County).
Localities should also be taken with reference to
the major compass points (north, south, west,
east), with the longitudinal directions (north and
south) preceding the latitudinal directions (west
and east). It is preferred that no localities be taken
with reference to other compass point subdivisions
(for example, northwest, southeast, east-north-
east, south-southeast) because of the difficulty in
pinpointing such localities.
It is urged that all possible methods of pinpoint-
ing collecting localities be used. However, if such
methods require a more detailed description than
established by the instructions above, it is suggest-
ed that such locality descriptions be explained in
the field notes. For any locality referred to in the
field notes, an explanation of its position should be
detailed and clear enough so that anyone could re-
turn to the exact area.
Such requirements have improved and standardized
field data, expedited cataloging procedures, and con-
tributed greatly to the organization of processing and
utilizing specimens. Because of these advantages and
others, some collections (for example, USNM, AM-
NH, and UPS) in addition to that of Texas Tech
University provide users with detailed instructions
and information concerning various aspects of the
respective collections.
Another consideration is the importance of ac-
curate and thorough field notes and personal
catalogs. Good notes can be as valuable as the
specimens. For this reason, it is advisable to en-
courage proper documentation and to maintain all
notes permanently with the collection. Because of
assured continuous care, maintenance, and greater
utilization, the original notes should be kept with the
collection. Under certain circumstances, the author
may wish to keep the notes for later personal use. If
so, the author should be provided with a duplicate
copy.
SOURCES OF ACQUISITION
The first phase of any Recent mammal collection
is the acquisition of material for the collection.
Although acquisitions may occur in several ways, or
combination of ways, most acquisitions of Recent
mammal collections are received from internal sour-
ces through efforts of institutional staff or students,
or from external sources through exchanges, pur-
chases, gifts, deposition of voucher specimens, or
permanent and long term loans (Table 1). The
amount of material provided by any source is largely
dependent on the size, affiliations, resources, goals,
and activeness of the collection.
INSTITUTIONAL STAFF AND ASSOCIATES
For many Recent mammal collections, a major
source of material is actual collecting efforts of the
collection staff and associates. Obtaining specimens
in this manner can be expensive because of travel,
equipment, wages, and other expenditures. However,
the material resulting from these efforts is a valuable
contribution to the collection, and would therefore
justify any necessary expenses. Often, material
9
TABLE 1. sources' OF SPECIMEN ACQUISITION FOR 18 COLLECTIONS OF RECENT MAMMALS.
Internal
Sources External Sources
Disposition of
Institution Institutional Students Exchanges Purchases Gifts Voucher Specimens Other
ROM
USNM
WFBM
UCONN
FSM
PUWL
MHP
KU
UMMZ
MMNH
VMKSC
AMNH
OSMNH
CM
TCWC
TTU
UPS
UWZM
2
1
1
I
3
1
1
2
1
2
1
i
3
1
1
I
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
5
3
5
4
5
7
5
3
4
4
1
2
5
3
3
4
4
3
2
2
3
6
3
5
4
2
3
3
2
4
2
1
2
1
2
1
4
2
5
2
4
7
7
7
7
3
Sources are ranked from I to 7 for each institution, 1 being the most important. A blank indicates no specimens received from this source.
Museum acronyms are given in Introduction.
collected by the staff and associates is accompanied
by a considerable amount of data resulting from in-
dependent and cooperative research. Such data are
significant additions to the scientific value of the
specimen as well as the collection.
STUDENTS
Another form of acquisition, which is primarily
restricted to collections affiliated with educational
institutions, results from collecting performed as a
part of course requirements, or research performed
by advanced students. Although such material would
ideally be permissible in any collection, it must be
realized that some specimens, particularly those ob-
tained from beginning students, may not meet the
standards of the research collection because of the
lack of experience in preparation and in taking and
recording data. If such material is deposited in the
research collection, supervision of collecting and
preparation by a responsible and experienced person
is needed. Specimens obtained from advanced
students, particularly those associated with research,
can prove to be a valuable and often a significant
source of material for the collection.
EXCHANGES
Another common means of acquiring material,
particularly among smaller collections, is the practice
of exchanging specimens. Generally, the specimens
exchanged represent locally common species and are
traded on a one-to-one basis unless prior
arrangements are made (for example, TTU traded 20
specimens of uncommon species to the University of
Montana for a skin and skeleton of Oreamnos). The
primary advantage of this type of acquisition is that
new taxa can be added to the collection at a con-
siderably smaller cost than would be required to ob-
tain the same material by other means. The primary
expenses incurred are shipping charges and the
specimens used in the exchange.
PURCHASES
Acquisitions resulting from purchases can provide
a way of adding specimens of unrepresented taxa or
geographical regions. However, such practices are
generally discouraged because they tend to promote
unscrupulous collecting by individuals that are often
more interested in monetary gain, than in the scien-
tific value of the specimens. When purchases are
made, every effort should be made to acquire all per-
tinent information and materials associated with the
specimens. Also, because of individual, ethical, and
legal responsibilities, care should be taken to pur-
chase only material that has been legally collected,
possessed, and sold. By establishing requirements for
10
field notes, associated materials, and copies of per-
mits, to accompany all specimens purchased, those
individuals that obtain specimens to sell to in-
stitutions will be compelled to assure the scientific
quality of the specimens and to obtain such
specimens only by legal methods.
GIFTS
Acquisitions resulting from gifts can present a
dilemma because of the problems involved in accep-
ting or rejecting gifts of questionable scientific value
or alternative uses of the material. In the event a gift
is accepted, an acquisition contract (see Ac-
cessioning) should be received from the donor, and
every effort should be made to obtain all possible in-
formation and associated materials concerned with
the acquisition. In exchange for gifts that are subject
to taxation, donors may expect a valuation of the
donation for income tax purposes. Because of
stipulations established by the Internal Revenue Ser-
vice, valuations of gifts made by personnel of the
recipient institution are generally not acceptable.
Such valuations are valid only through transactions
made by the donor. Internal Revenue Service, and
approved appraisers. For maintaining institutional
records for inventory and insurance purposes, the In-
ternal Revenue Service suggests the use of statements
such as, “We are placing the following items in our
records at an estimated value of .”
For additional information concerning the valuation
of gifts, it is recommended that the Department of
ACCESSIONING
The accessioning procedure involves receiving and
recording of all acquisitions by the institution (Fig.
2). The steps of this procedure may vary at different
institutions.
An accession represents an acquisition from one
source at one time, and may include material that
consists of several different assemblages. For in-
stance, material may be received from one field ex-
pedition and include a series of mammals, reptiles,
plants, insects, or any other item obtained during the
course of the trip. All this material would be included
in one acquisition, or accession, and would therefore
be recorded as a single unit received by the in-
stitution.
Each acquisition is given an accession number
distinguishing it from other acquisitions. This num-
ber, in addition to relevant information concerning
the Treasury, Internal Revenue Service, be consulted.
DEPOSITION OF VOUCHER SPECIMENS
A source of acquisitions that may be similar to a
gift is material from individuals not associated with
the collection who deposit voucher specimens. Such
material can be a potentially valuable contribution to
the collection, particularly when research or field
data are associated with it. When voucher specimens
are acquired by the collection, every effort should be
made to obtain or gain access to all data concerned
with the incoming specimens.
PERMANENT AND LONG TERM LOANS
Permanent and long term loans represent types of
acquisition that are not common among Recent
mammal collections. Such acquisitions may result
from various transactions between institutions or in-
dividuals. For instance, one institution may need to
loan its collection to another institution because of
the lack of facilities to maintain the collection (Van
Gelder, 1965). Another possibility is that an in-
stitution may receive rare, endangered, or protected
species from a state or federal agency. The main
stipulation in accepting a permanent loan is that if
the material is to be disposed of at a later date, it
must be returned to the lender. Material on long term
loan may be returned under similar circumstances, or
with the expiration of the loan period, or upon
request from the lender.
the acquisition, is recorded on an accession form
(Fig. 3). The minimal information that should be
recorded on an accession form would include the
disciplines receiving material, list of material in the
acquisition, brief description of the material in the
acquisition, type of acquisition, estimated value,
donor, address of donor, date received, date ac-
cepted, and special remarks. When collection catalog
numbers become available, they should also be in-
cluded on the accession form. Copies of collecting
permits, importation permits, and custom
declarations pertaining to the acquisition should be
submitted with the accession form. These documents
should become part of the institution’s permanent
records.
Once the accession form is completed, it is
registered in the institution records. Registration of
an accession may involve recording appropriate in-
formation in a ledger (Fig. 4) or card file, completing
11
Fig. 2. Flow chart of accessioning procedures.
a donor card (Fig. 5), and duplicating the accession
form. The donor cards are placed in a file arranged
according to contributors. Copies of the accession
form are kept in the institution and often with the
collection or collections.
If an acquisition is received as a gift, a receipt (Fig.
6) and an acquisition contract (Fig. 7) should be sent
to the donor. Similar procedures may also be applied
to other types of acquisitions, depending on the
nature of the individual transaction. Such procedures
acknowledge the receipt of the acquisition, and
release the institution from any additional obligation
to the donor. In the event that a contract is not signed
and returned, deaccessioning procedures may be
conducted. This procedure involves returning the
acquisition to the donor and adjusting all records to
indicate that the material was deaccessioned (Fig. 4).
Although many institutions may not understand
the need to practice accessioning, such procedures
are useful in collection management. In addition to
providing a record of all incoming material for the
institution, accessioning allows the recording of in-
formation that would not be documented through
othe processes (for example, donor, donor’s address,
estimated value, description, and other comments).
Accessioning also promotes organization of the
material for later processing and allows easy referen-
ce for compiling reports. Finally, accessioning
procedures assure complete control and firm owner-
ship of all incoming material. Because of the advan-
tages created by accessioning, it is advisable to in-
clude similar procedures in the management of
Recent mammal collections. After accessioning has
been completed, the material in the acquisition is sent
to the appropriate collection or collections for
cataloging and subsequent processing (Fig. 8).
CATALOGING
Cataloging procedures for most Recent mammal
collections (for example, USNM, MVZ, WFBM,
FSM, PUWL, MMNH, AMNH, CM, and TTU) in-
cludes a sequence of identifying, organizing, recor-
ding, and numbering each specimen of an
acquisition. Depending on the nature of preparation,
individual specimens may require minor alterations
in cataloging procedures. Because “skin tags” may
become damaged with specimens preserved as
skeletal material or as “alcoholics,” labeling of such
material is generally restricted to the use of “skull
tags” with appropriate identification (for example,
initials of preparator, preparation number, and sex).
As a result, other data are not available with the
specimen. It is therefore necessary to temporarily
substitute a label or card having the required infor-
mation for the specimen. This substitution will allow
the specimen to be processed through regular
cataloging procedures. Once cataloged, such
specimens need only to be labeled with the ap-
propriate collection number.
IDENTIFICATION
Identification of individual specimens is probably
the first and most difficult phase of cataloging for
most Recent mammal collections, and generally in-
cludes identification of each specimen to a sub-
specific level. All identifications are based on the
most recent classification occurring in the literature.
Hall and Kelson (1959) have written one of the best
references for North American mammals, yet this
work is in need of revision. If a specimen cannot be
completely identified because of uncleaned skeletal
material, the standard procedure is to partially iden-
tify the material as accurately as possible, and com-
plete identification to the subspecific level, or specific
level in the case of monotypic species, after the
material has been cleaned in subsequent processing.
When an identification is acquired, the name should
be written on the skin tag (or substituting label). By
using a pencil to write the identification, changes in
the name caused by misidentification or taxonomic
revision can easily be made.
12
Accession No. /97¥ - Code Hamm Ornish ^ t^erp.
Date Rec’d. A/ayernSe^r /97¥
Nature of Material msmrrTa/s^ ZZ J>ire/s^ Z rcp^/7f^s pre^GrYsd as skins and/or- skc/. or a/coha/ic.
Rec'd From Huseum F/e/d H^&hod^s course how obtained fie/d co/lf^c^/on
Addres-; Thc Hus^um ■ Tsxas T^ch Cfnivers/jt^ ■ Lu6i>oc/c
Correspondence (Senoi^st^s
Collector Cs^ rcrrjgrks)
Locality— Texas ■• Sr-GuJ^^&r Co.^ ^/ass Aioor?i^a/r?s
Field Notes-
ayai/a6/&
When Collected
Oct- Hoy /y/V
Estimated Value__ ¥s¥o. oa
raamma/<^Y_ ZZfQjZ,
. orr?/tAo/ayY Zd9¥ - ZC>09^ Z<^6,0 ^
herpe^to/o^Y
Dimensions.,
Inclusive Catalog Nos.
» »
Remarks. Collectors tne/aded /?..D.^'ellar7d^:P.K.l>ear?_ ^.C. X>ou^/er H,H.(^erto<M(^s^ Tf.C,
dendricksep H_lL Hc^au^A^£.PJcen£hfoi7_^S.£J*erA/ns , and^.A^JdiTHsm^-^ * possessed permits.
Date of Entry /Q A/oyemSer Tf7d Entered by rj/a
Fig. 3. Standard accession card used by The Museum of Texas Tech University. Original size of card was 127 by 203 millimeters.
At other collections (for example, ROM, MHP,
KU, UMMZ, and UPS), identification may be en-
tirely postponed until after the skeletal material has
been cleaned. Although this procedure may have
some advantages (for example, conclusive iden-
tification and elimination of unsuitable specimens),
particularly at collections having a restricted
acquisition of new material, it is less efficient than
the procedure described above, because of the delay
in the initial processing (for example organizing,
cataloging, labeling) of the acquisition. This delay is
usually caused by the time required to clean the
skeletal material, particularly when irregular time
periods are needed for various specimens. Further
expenditure of time and energy also occurs as a result
of problems in reassociating, for initial processing,
the skeletal material with other parts of the specimen
(for example, skins), particularly when several
acquisitions have been mixed. Depending on the con-
trol of cleaning operations, additional factors may
cause further inefficiency as processing continues.
But if such a procedure is feasible and is practiced, it
is suggested that separate working cases, or areas
within a case, be used for uncataloged material.
ORGANIZATION AND ARRANGEMENT
After the specimens have been identified, they
should be organized for cataloging. A common prac-
tice among Recent mammal collections is to catalog
the specimens of an acquisition in an order ap-
proximating the arrangement of specimens in the
collection.
Most arrangement plans are dependent upon
several factors, such as size of collection, type of
preservation, available facilities, staff size, nature of
utilization, and fields of interest of the professional
staff. Once a system has been adopted, it should
prevail throughout the collection, wherever feasible,
to promote continuity and accessibility. Written in-
structions should be posted and distributed to collec
tion users. Following are the instructions .or
cataloging arrangement of mammal specimens at
Texas Tech University:
For any incoming accession, the mammal speci-
mens of that accession will be arranged in the fol-
lowing manner for cataloging purposes:
1) Specimens are arranged systematically to sub-
family following Simpson (1945).
13
Fig. 4. Accession catalog maintained by Texas Tech University. Note that the third item has been deaccessioned. Original page size was 1 86 by 395 millimeters.
14
DONOR CARD
NAME: Museum Field Methods course
ACC. NO.: /4-ybb
ADDRESS: The Museum; Texas Tech University
DATE RECD.: Nov, 1>74
PHONE: 742-72U8
ASSIGNED TO: Mammalogy
Ornithology
Description:
Herpetology
84 mammals, 22 birds, ^ reptiles
ACCESSIONED BY: rsm
DATE: lu Nov, 1j'74
ACQUIRED BY: field coll.
Fig. 5. Donor card completed for each accession at Texas Tech University. Original size of card was 102 by 153 millimeters.
The Museum of
Texas Tech University
RECEIPT
THE MUSEUM ACKNOWLEDGES THE RECEIVING OF:
y GIFT PURCHASE LOAN EXCHANGE
OTHER:
FROM: L. D, Shelby and T. G, Jacobson
:i;2U /ive, T
lirownsville, Texas
CONSISTING OF THE FOLLOWING:
l^y naramals, o7 reptiles, and 62 arvphibians
from South Texas and northern Mexico.
^.'iC c . t <o . i ^ / 4- .. o 2 y
THE MUSEUM PLACES THESE ITEMS IN ITS RECORDS AT AN
ESTIMATED VALUE OF .
RECEIVED BY: k, riontgor.iery DATE: o liov i,/4
Fig. 6. Receipt sent to the donor acknowledging material received and giving estimated value of the material. Original size was
102 by 153 millimeters.
The Museum
of
Texas Tech University
PO Box 4499 Lubbock, Texas 79409 Phone (806) 742 515I
AGREEMENT FOR ACQUISITIONS RECEIVED
BY THE MUSEUM
In conformity with the policies adopted by The Museum of Texas Tech
University, as recommended by the American Association of Museums,
I hereby give and release unconditionally all of the items received
herewith by The Museum. The Museum agrees to treat the items to its
best advantage for exhibit, study, or other purposes and to maintain
their condition and security in a manner consistent with the total
museum program. In keep i ng with the Un i vers i ty ' s po 1 i c i es , acceptance
of any collection is forbidden if given under the conditions that it
be kept intact, that it be exhibited permanently, or that The Museum
keep it permanently.
5 November 19 74
Signature of Donor (/
R, Montgomery
For The Museum
L, D, Shelby and T, G, Jacobson
Aye, T; Brownsville. Texas Registrar
Address Title
Description of Articles
12y mammals, 37 reptiles, and 62 amphibians from South Texas and
northern Mexico. tAcc, No. Iy74— y821
Fig. 7. Acquisition contract sent to al! donors of material given to The Museum of Texas Tech University. Original size of
page was 230 by 217 millimeters.
16
Acquisition of Material
I
Accessioning of Material (Fig. 2)
I
MATERIAL FOR OTHER COLLECTIONS
1
MATERIAL FOR MAMMAL COLLECTION
Fumigation
Identification of Material
Organization and Arrangement of
Material Based on Identification
Cataloging Material
Labeling Material
Special Processing
PERMANENT STORAGE
1
I
I
Maintenance (Fig. 35)
!
I
Utilizatio’n (Fig. 36)
Fig. 8. Flow chart of processing procedures used in collections of Recent mammals.
17
2) Genera of a subfamily are arranged in alphabet-
ical order.
3) Species of a genus are arranged in alphabetical
order.
4) Subspecies of a species are arranged in alphabet-
ical order.
5) Specimens of a subspecies are arranged in alpha-
betical order by country.
6) Specimens of the same country are arranged in
alphabetical order by state, province, or depart-
ment.
7) Specimens from the same state, province, or de-
partment are arranged in alphabetical order by
county or parish, if such exists.
8) Specimens from the same county or parish (or
state, province, or department, if counties or par-
ishes are not used) are arranged alphabetically by
locality with respect to the reference point (town,
city, or physiographic feature) used on the speci-
men label.
9) When more than one locality refers to the same
reference point, localities are arranged from north
to south; if two or more localities are at the same
latitude, the localities are arranged from west to
east.
10) Specimens from the same locality are arranged
alphabetically according to names of preparators
(last name, first name, middle name).
11) Specimens of each preparator are arranged se-
quentially by preparation number.
The main advantage in having a detailed and
definite cataloging procedure is that (1) any
acquisition will be specifically organized for sub-
sequent processing; (2) such procedures promote
maximum efficiency of processing repetitive data,
thus simplifying cataloging and computerization
processes; and (3) such procedures allow any com-
mon group of specimens, once installed in the collec-
tion, to be in numerical order as well as in the order
established for the collection, thus providing easier
removal, replacement, and utilization of specimens.
Most collections (for example, USNM, MVZ,
UCONN, MHP, KU, AMNH, CM, and TTU)
arrange specimens in a phylogenetic order (Appendix
A) according to Simpson (1945). A few Recent
mammal collections use other sources of
phytogenies: Anderson and Jones, 1967 (for exam-
ple, OSMNH); Hall and Kelson, 1959 (for example,
MMNH); Miller, 1924 (for example, UMMZ); Miller
and Kellogg, 1955 (for example, UWZM); and
Walker, 1975 (for example, FSM). Three of these
phytogenies appear in Appendix B. Phylogenetic
arrangements are advantageous because related taxa
are kept in close proximity to one another. However,
the use of the latter sources may be less desirable
because of geographical restrictions, need of
revision, or limited use among Recent mammal
collections. Generally, phylogenetic arrangements
are followed to the subfamilial or generic level.
Problems in using a phylogenetic sequence to the
generic level include the determination of relation-
ships of genera that have recently been named or
revised and maintaining a list of genera for reference
purposes. An alphabetical sequence probably would
be more practical to use because of the ease of
retrieval and reinstallation for all people that may
work in the collection. Most collections follow an
alphabetical arrangement for species and subspecies.
Following a taxonomic arrangement, localities are
arranged in some manner which may vary between
different collections. One method, which originated
at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at Berkeley,
involves a geographical arrangement of localities
from northwest to southeast, beginning with coun-
tries and following with the same arrangement within
subsequent subdivisions (for example, state, county,
reference point, and specific localities). This
arrangement is shown in Appendix C. Another
method (Appendix D) involves the alphabetical
arrangement of localities beginning with countries,
followed by alphabetizing within subsequent sub-
divisions (for example, state, county, and reference
point). Specific localities around a common reference
point are generally arranged from northwest to
southeast. Geographical arrangement is sometimes
preferred over alphabetical arrangement because of
its utilization at other collections, or because the size
of the collection using such a system does not
warrant the change to more utilitarian systems
because of the time and effort involved. However,
alphabetical arrangement is more functional for most
people, when considering collection management,
and is therefore becoming popular among most
Recent mammal collections (for example, USNM,
UCONN, MHP, KU, MMNH, VMKSC, AMNH,
CM, TTU, and UPS).
Although actual arrangement within a collection
may follow a numerical order (by collection catalog
number) following the locality, further detail in
arranging specimens is recommended. Each specimen
should have a specific position with the acquisition.
This practice will contribute to the unity and
organization of the acquisition. For instance, some
18
collections (for example, MHP and KU) may further
subdivide the specimens chronologically by collecting
date, followed by an alphabetical arrangement of
preparators, which is in turn followed by a sequential
order of preparation numbers. Some collections (for
example, MMNH, AMNH, and TTU) simply sub-
divide specimens by preparator (alphabetically) and
preparation number (sequentially).
RECORDING
Cataloging is a process of allocating a specific
sequential collection number to each specimen and
all its parts. This number and pertinent information
concerning the individual specimen are recorded in
the collection catalog (Fig. 9), in permanent black
ink. Generally, a catalog consists of bound pages that
have sequential numbers on each line of each page.
Each line is reserved for information corresponding
to a single specimen. However, catalogs may have
other forms, e.g., cards (Fig. 10) as maintained by
the Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection. This
system (TCWC) is basically the same as the bound
version except that the specimens are associated data
are listed (numerically by catalog number) on 4" x 6"
cards. Whatever type of catalog is used, basic
information should be included, such as the
collection catalog number, scientific name (for
example, genus, species, subspecies), sex, collecting
locality (for example, country, state or equivalent,
county or equivalent, specific locality), collecting
date, collector, preparator, preparation number,
special numbers (for example, numbers associated
with individual research projects, collector’s number,
previous collection catalog numbers from other
institutions), type of preparation, and accession
number. Other information that can be included is
family, continent, longitude and latitude of
collecting locality, reproductive data, external
measurements, and ecological data. External
measurements and reproductive information should
be routinely included for specimens that do not have
this information recorded elsewhere (for example,
specimens labeled only with a “skull tag”).
NUMBERING
After a specimen has been assigned a number and
recorded in the catalog, the collection name, or
initials, and collection catalog number should be
written with permanent black ink on all skin tags,
skull tags, and special tags. For material such as
traded or purchased specimens, the original tags are
never replaced by new tags, but should be
supplemented by such tags. This procedure is needed
to identify the specimen with its respective collection
and to maintain all records associated with the
individual specimen. All parts of any particular
specimen should be labeled and identifiable by the
collection catalog number. If skeletal material is not
completely clean at this point, labeling of the bones
must await further processing. Because the collection
catalog number represents a specific and permanent
part of the collection, and it is the primary
distinguishing character of the specimen, extreme
care should always be taken to insure that all records
and labels are legible and correct.
PROCESSING DATA
Once specimens have been cataloged, additional
records are often- made for each specimen. Such
records may include labels for skeletal material,
special card files, or specimen information entered
into a computerized information-retrieval system.
LABELS
To to able to efficiently place skeletal material in
its proper position within the collection, it is
necessary to make special labels for such material.
These labels may include the collection catalog
number, taxon, sex, collecting locality, collecting
date, preparator, and preparation number. If the
skeletal material represents the entire specimen,
external measurements and reproductive data should
be included on the label (Fig. 11). The typing of
labels for skeletal material can be done any time after
cataloging. A good procedure is to type a series of
labels in sequential order, proofread the typed
information, file the labels in numerical order, and
match the label with corresponding skeletal material
when processing has been completed. This procedure
will allow a check of what specimens have been
completed and are ready for installation. Similar
labels may also be used for special collections (for
example, see storage).
FILES
Many Recent mammal collections also maintain
additional records of cataloged specimens, such as
geographic or taxonomic card files (Figs. 12 and 13).
Geographic card files are usually arranged
alphabetically, whereas taxonomic card files may be
arranged alphabetically or phylogenetically.
Although such files may be difficult to maintain
because of the time required for duplicating
information, they can provide a useful reference in
utilizing the collection, or in responding to inquiries
19
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20
DeDartment Cataloene — MAMMALS Texas A&M University
Acc’n. No. Date of Entry 9 Entered by yS.
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1
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Fig. 10. Numerical catalog maintained on 4" x 6" cards at Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection, Texas A & M University.
concerning the collection. As the collection grows in
size, such files become even more important.
COMPUTERIZATION
In an effort to gain better utilization of systematics
collections, many Recent mammal collections (for
example, USNM, KU, and TTU) are entering
information and data of cataloged specimens into
computerized information-retrieval systems. Interest
in the use of computers for the purpose of collection
utilization and management has been further
developed by the American Society of Mammalogists
(1974). In an effort to obtain the maximum and most
efficient use of data associated with specimens in
collections, a national information-retrieval network
has been proposed. Such a network would involve all
North American Recent mammal collections and
basically entail recording and storing data from all
mammal specimens. These data will be accessible to
all qualified workers and can be reproduced in
written form. To operate the proposed network,
several regional centers would be required for the
compilation of information of surrounding
collections. A national information-retrieval network
would certainly be advantageous for Recent mammal
,?|teleton Only
Texas Tech 2 2977 9 University
Peromyscus pectoralls
Texas Tech 2297^ V University
Peromyscus pectoralis
— laftgianus
Texas.tBrewstei'....G-o, ,-17 ,■5-
ml N.0.6 mi E Marathon
The Williams
T'3CB'iHlTQ'5
Tfijra.5.:Br.ewja.t£r...CQ-P.-A7— 5-
mi N,0.6 mi B Marathon
the Williams 1894
1893
i80-86_21-18=23.7 3emb=7 .
Fig. 11. Two examples of labels used for skeletal material stored in vials. Original size
was 28 by 50 millimeters.
The Museum of
Texas Tech university
COLLECTION OF MAMMAL8
Numbar
Naom
Date
Collector
8023
Ferosnathus nelsonl canescens
9 Apr
1968
R.J.
Baker
8584
Slraodon ochrofcnathus ochrognathus
l6 Apr
1968
H. Bouers
1
S
o
H
Euderaa aaculatum
7 Jul
1970
D.A.
Easterla
1 ?n<»o
PeromvaeuE eremlcus arcalcus
l8 Apr
1966
C.O.
McKlnnev
12158-12162
Antrozous pallldus pallldus
19 Sept
1970
•T-Wf
Warner
13698
noneoatus nesoleucua meamsl
5 jan
1968
RtVt
Packard
17739 17733
Pappng^nityK r.aRtanoDS Dratensls
29 Jul
19^:9
0. J.
RaI
22902
MyotlH vellfer Ineautus
2 Nov
1974
B.tl.
Dowler
22903.22904
Plplstrellua hesperus mazlmus
2 Nov
1974
S.T.
Williams
22905
T.6PUS callfornlcua texlanus
1 Nov
1974
S.E.
Perkins
2 2906
ft It tl
n
R.C.
Dowler
92907
n n 9
H
M.H.
McOauxh
22908
n n 9
2 Nov
1974
R.L.
Hendrlcksen
99909
STlvllarrus audubonll neomezlcanus
It
S »L«
Williams
22910
Anaosparmophtlus InterPrcs
1 NOV
1974
R aXi •
Hendrlcksen
The Museum of
Locality arawBtar <;», #5
Texas Tech University
COLLECTION OP MAMMALS
Number
N4me
Date
Collector
p?9n
AmirtApAnnnphll 1151 IntArprAn
2 Nov
1974
W11Ham.<5
9991 9
« n
3 liov
1974
M.H. McOaugh
22913
Pappofceomys oastanops pratensls
n
R.C. Dowler
22914
n n n
31 00%
1974
M.H. McGaugh
99915-99916
n It n
1 Nov
1974
S.L. Williams
99917
M n n
31 Oct
1974
n
22918
Thomomvs bottae llmltarls
tf
R.C. Dowler
92919
n ft ft
n
R.L.
99090
an n
2 Nov
1974
S.L. Williams
99991 99997
n n n
1 Nov
1974
If
9999a
N N n
2 Nov
1974
n
99999
M ft n
3 Nov
1974
N
99930
n n n
31 Oct
1974
R.L.
Hendrlcksen
22931-22933
an n
2 Nov
1974
S.T.. willlamfi
22934
PernynathiUi flavus flavus
n
R.C. Dowler
Fig. 12. Two cards from the geographic card file. Original size of card was 128 by 178 millimeters.
22
The Museum of
Mephitis mephitis varlans i2 T'ech University
COLLECTION OF MAMMALS
Number
Sex
Locality
Date
Collector
1 R^q
9
Texas? Llano Oo., 7-'^ >nl- S Llano
31 Mar
1965
H.S. Fc/rlck
8518
cf
Texas: Martin Co., 3 ml. N Stanton
26 Dec
1968
S.L. Williams
10247
9
Tamaullpas: 67 km. S Cd. Victoria
2 Apr
1970
V.R. McDanlal
10267
o'
Texas: Lubbock Co., 5 mi. S Wolff orth
23 Feb
1970
T . F. . C 1 a r V
12067
cf
Texas: Presidio Co., Sierra Vieja Mts., ZH Canyon
19 Sept
1963
R..T. Raker
12064
rf
Texas? Archer Co., 26.4 ml. SW Wichita Palls
22 Nov
1970
If
17411
O'
Texas; Jeff navis Co., 1/2 m1, H{P Fort Davis
30 Sept
1972
.S,T., wnil ams
17490
Toxas; Taihhor.k Qo,, T-nbbor.k
7 May
1973
P. Mnr.tcromerv
20687
9
Texas: Culberson Co., Upper Dog Ranger Station,
Guadalupe Mts. National Park
4 Jun
1973
R..T. Raker
2o6RR
,o"
Texas: Culberson Co., Williams Ranch
Guadalupe Mts. National Park
15 jun
1973
D.E. Wilhelm
2 2984
rT
Texas? Brewster Co.. l8.0 ml. N. 3.0 ml. E Marathon
3 Nov
1074
Fig. 13. Card from the taxonomic card file. Original size of card was 128 by 178 millimeters.
collections, but its success is largely dependent on the
cooperation and standardization of such collections.
In order to establish standardization and plan a
national network, the American Society of
Mammalogists sponsored a workshop for the
National Network for Information Retrieval in
Mammalogy (NIRM) in September 1975. One result
of this workshop was the selection of data that will be
used by NIRM. The types of data, generally recorded
for mammals, were divided according to individual
importance, and classified as being mandatory data,
important (but optional) data, and other optional
data (Table 2). The optional data is not used by
NIRM because of the expense and security involved.
Implementation of these categories is dependent on
the need and discretion of the individual collection.
The standards established for the various types of
data have been documented, and include
explanations of descriptions, formats, omit
conditions, contingency requirements, valid
examples, accepted variations, and occasional
remarks. This documentation was primarily
developed at the National Museum of Natural
History by Art Brigida and Henry W. Setzer, and will
become available through the Committee on
Information Retrieval of the American Society of
Mammalogists.
The information retrieval system proposed by
NIRM for the national network is SELGEM (SELf
GEnerating Master) which was designed and
developed by the Smithsonian Institution for
information management. SELGEM consists of
about 25 general-purpose computer programs, which
are written in the COBOL (COmmon Business
Oriented Language) computer language. These
programs can be made compatible with several types
of computers (for example, Honeywell 2015, IBM
360, IBM 370, CDC 3100, CDC 6400, UNIVAC
1106, UNIVAC 1110, GE 635, Burroughs, and ICL)
as long as at least four tape drives, 96 K characters of
23
TABLE 2. SELGEM CATEGORIES' AND NUMBERS AS USED AT NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL
HISTORY AND TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY.
Category Category
Number Category Number Category
♦001
Catalog/Serial Number
112
Elevation
*051
Museum Acronym
125
Collector’s Name
052
Division Acronym
126
Collector’s Number
♦053
Catalog/Serial Number
155
Donor
065
Family
156
Accession Number
♦071
Genus
157
Date Cataloged
073
Subgenus
185
Ecological Notes
♦075
Species
200
Remarks
078
Subspecies
♦401
Sex
♦095
Date Collected
402
Collection Code
♦100
Continent or Country
(Type of Preparation)
♦102
State or Province
403
Bone Inventory
♦103
Country, District, or
404
Weight
Major Island Group
405
Reproductive Anatomy Data
104
Specific Locality
406
External Measurements
106
Modifier of Specific Locality
410
Age
♦107
Ocean
420
Corresponding Bone or
♦108
Sea
Skin Number
♦109
Bay, Inlet, Strait, Estuary,
506
Preparator’s Name
Gulf, or Channel
508
Preparation Number
110
Latitude and Longitude
510
Special Number
Categories marked with an asterisk are mandatory for NIRM.
core, and a COBOL compiler are available (Anon.,
1974; Chenhall, 1975). Based on the type of
computer utilized, the cost of implementation ranges
from $500 to $5,000. The programs may be acquired
from the Smithsonian Institution at no cost other
than the cost of duplication. For this service and
because of federal obligations to the public, the
SELGEM programs may not be used for profit-
making purposes. The current cost of each record
from the time of input to the final output is about
$0.31 per record at the Smithsonian Institution
(Anon., 1974). It is possible that data for specimens
can be processed cheaper.
Although SELGEM is a popular program among
systematics collections, there are several other
computerized information-retrieval systems (for
example, MARK IV, GRIPHOS, GIPSY, ELMS,
STIRS, GIS, ADAM-II, CAP, CORSAIR II, ISIS,
IRGMA, and IGMRAF) which possibly could be
used by mammal collections if needed modifications
are made. The suitability and utilization of any
particular program is primarily determined by the
requirements and resources of the individual
collection or institution. When selecting a computer
program for information-retrieval purposes, several
factors should be considered before any program is
implemented. These factors include;
1) Source and availability program
2) Success of program at other institutions
3) Past, current, and future support and devel-
opment of the program
4) Actual needs of the collection or institution
5) Applicability and suitability of the program to
meet the needs of the collection or institution
6) Alternative uses of the program (for example,
payroll, mailing lists, etc.)
7) Capabilities and functions of the program (for
example, compiling, searching, sorting, updating,
editing, report writing, label writing, etc.)
8) Flexibility of the program to permit change to
the needs of the collection or institution
9) Convertibility of the program (for example, in-
tegrating stored data from one program with other
information-retrieval computer programs or statis-
tical programs)
10) Complexity of the program (for example, input
and output operations, utilization, and mainte-
nance)
11) Security of stored records and other documen-
tation
24
12) Time required (for example, implementation of
the program, capturing data, and using data)
13) Required personnel
14) Time and effort required to train personnel
15) Costs (for example, initial, recurring, operat-
ing, processing, etc.)
16) Administrative financial support and coopera-
tion
17) Cooperation of users
18) Availability of support and cooperation for the
program and computerization over an extended
period of time
19) Compatibility of program with available hard-
ware
For a basic tabular comparison of some computer-
ized information-retrieval systems, see Appendix E.
Although procedures in computerization can be
complex, depending on the situation, the basic steps
for many information-retrieval systems (including
SELGEM) include initial planning, coding of data,
translating coded data, creating working files to
remove discrepancies from the captured data,
building, or adding to a master file with corrected
data, and utilizing the data in the master file.
Depending on the program and the situation for
which the program is used, these steps may vary
somewhat.
The initial planning of computerization should
begin with study of the literature (Chenhall, 1975;
Ellin, 1970/71; Foote and Zider, 1975; Hislop, 1967;
Squires, 1970; Vance et al., 1973; Van Gelder and
Anderson, 1967), of other collections that are
actively utilizing computers, and discussion with
computer experts. If the SELGEM system is to be
implemented, it is recommended that the
Smithsonian Institution be consulted (address:
Manager, Information Retrieval and Indexing,
Information Systems Division, Smithsonian
Institution, A & I Building, Room 2362,
Washington, D.C. 20560). One aspect of the initial
planning may include data modifications acceptable
to the computer (for example, the sex symbols “o””
and will need to be indicated in a different
manner, e.g., “M” and “F”). Further data
modification may include the addition of general
categories, such as family and country, that will
facilitate more convenient and less expensive retrieval
of data. Because the initial planning for successful
computerization may be difficult, particularly for
inexperienced individuals, a set of basic guidelines to
assist the various collections in starting
computerization should be established.
Coding of the data consists of a standard
designation, or category number, for each type of
data or category (for example, see standard category
numbers established by NIRM in Table 2). The use of
the code simplifies utilization of computerized data.
Because actual coding of data can be relatively
involved, the specimen information may be
transferred to coded worksheets (Fig. 14). However,
such duplication may be time-consuming.
Alternative methods include designing special catalog
sheets that are already coded (Fig. 15), or coding data
from the specimen directly into a computer-readable
form (for example, paper cards, paper tape, etc.).
Such methods require a well-trained technician that
understands the cataloging and coding systems well
enough for translation procedures.
Translation of data into computer-readable form
may be done through the use of paper tape, paper
cards, magnetic tape, magnetic cards, teletype,
magnetic disk, and in other ways. Each method has
advantages and disadvantages. The choice of any
method should be governed primarily by the
resources of the institution, compatibility with
available computer hardware, and the information-
retrieval program being used. For most situations,
the standard key-punch machine for paper cards is
probably the best all-around device for translating
data. Further consideration in using any particular
device should include an evaluation of equipment
cost, processing cost, products, cost of products,
complexity, ease of training, ease of making
corrections, time required for utilization, terminal
capabilities, and alternative uses.
The translated version is submitted to the
computer, and a temporary file created. The file is
used to adjust, correct, delete, or add information
concerning the specimens. Once the information is in
the desired form, it is added to the master file. If the
master file is not new it will contain all information
of previously computerized speeimens. With the
master file built, the information in the file can be
manipulated in several ways to produce the desired
output. For instance, numerical catalogs,
geographical files, taxonomic files, special collection
files, listings, or reports can be constructed. By
supplementing this facility with a procedure for
reduction of the printed record (for example, by
photographic processes), labels (Fig. 16) can be
made. There are several additional options available
through the use of computerized information-
retrieval programs. For instance, the University of
Arizona at Tucson has developed a SELGEM
DATA SHEET
DIVISION OF KAMIALOGY
te>:as tech hniversitt
25
header
Partial
E
Regular
4^
Museum
Division
Catalog Number
+05l|7-y
+052|y_
+05 3
u
9
7
9
-
1
r
i E 1
! ItM
1 i i 1
'1
r
■il
i I
1 ! 1 1
M 4 1 '
- i~r t
1 1 i i
1 1 '
iii.
■ ! i ■'
1 . . , i-i-
: M ' 1 1
m : -■ ! -r
Family
Genus
Species
Subspecies
+065
+071
+075
+078
//
C_
n
/
d
H
r
a
0
e
i ^ i
L
4J l.j
1 1 i
j
1
- r-
'
I "
/
n
c
e
O'^
Mil
^-1 r-L
.9
1
!
ill'
.. . 1
I'u:
- mLl
; ! 1
1 i i i
1 1 :
Mil
-iTr'-
J
<;
0
t
. !
! ;
r ! i 1 r
I
1
1 M 1
rr
Sex
+401|aY
'
1 i 1 t
i
i
1 1 i 1 ! 1 1 1 I i i ' 1 i
Continent or
+100/MQ7'
u
/
\£
Ls4jsiz
,_L
Jli L
_LLLl I Li_i.
-
State or Province/
Sea
County, District, or
Major Island Group/
Bay, Inlet, Strait,
Estuary, Gulf, or
Channel
Specific Locality
+102/
iiniri:n
ia:.M
J
"III..
-U. 0111.11
Li
+106
I !
■H-h
-iOL W/l
! i I I
r ^
I r-
! I !
L,: Ll.L i.L
I M ! i I ^
Date
** Type of Preparation
Collector
Preparator
Preparation Nutibei
Special Number
Accession Number
Availability Status
+095 O e
+402 [5 g
+ 1 2 5 I2? p
+506:^0^
+50eK
+510;
+156 j/ [f
+501 i I
_V_
IL 'i.,
' is 'ci
!c[ .
I
z/
9\£:iSl\Ll
- i_ :
I I '
i:n:
( --i
LU
H-
_U+-L- -
— 1- -
I
U-.
I
I I
M-
-41
Remarks
+200
; I i
1
-H4-
Tl
III
I i
-U-i-i-
I I I
End of Record
* Cede for Sex - M = male; F = female; ? = unknown
End of File
□
** for Type of Preparation -
AL = alcoholic
AN = anatomical
CO = cranium only
KF. = skin and body skeleton
OT ==
PS = partial skeleton
SA
SB
SK
SN
SO
SS
skull and alcoholic skin
skin, skull, and body skeleton
skull only
si eleton only
.'In only
skin and skull
Fig. 14. Form used for coding data for computerization using the SELGEM system. Original size of form was 280 by 217
millimeters.
26
o
CATALOG OF THE MAMMAL COLLECTION, TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY, LUBBOCK TEXAS X
VOLUMES PAGE/-?0 /
• 051
052
^ 053
■ 065
‘ 071
075
- 078
MUS
DIV
CATALOG NO
FAMILY
GENUS
SPECIES
SUBSPECIES
TTU
M
Cr/c^i/olse
'F'eroi^i/ScaS
p^^ora/ils
\ ^
TTU
M
II
II
lx
TTU
M
2294J
• 1
M
U ^
SEX CODE
M ^ MALE
F= FEMALE
A’
401
■ 100
* 102
* 103
^ 106
SEX
COUNTRY
STATE
COUNTY
SPECIFIC LOCALITY
r
i/n/ S^<9/es
Sr^ujst&r-
/ g
/nt y /. 2 /»/ £ N.
H
II
H
/
M
-
-
/Z £ mi V /.3 mi £ MaratAon
NATURE OF SPECIMEN CODE
AN = ANATOMICAL
SK = SKULL ONLY
SO = SKIN ONLY
SS = SKIN AND SKULL
BS= POST CRANIAL SKELETON ONLY
KB = SKIN AND BODY SKELETON
SB = SKIN, SKULL. AND BODY SKELETON
AL = ALCOHOLIC
SA=~ SKULL AND ALCOHOLIC SKIN
CO = CRANIUM ONLY
B' \
• 095
• 406
+ 125
+ 506
+ 508
+ 510
+ 156
DATE COLLECTED
N S
COLLECTOR
PREPARATOR
PREP NO
SPECIAL NO.
ACC. NO
OZ Nov /97^
f)L
3.L. iNii/iamx
^ Ni/Ziams
(1
f)L
/i99
n
d Nov 197*1
JD K J?C‘9n
<f<? _
~
Fig. 15. Headings for catalog sheet designed at Texas Tech University. The design of this sheet expedites coding of data for computerization
using the SELGEM system, thus eliminating the need for individual data sheets (Fig. 14). Original size of entire catalog page was 303 by 609
millimeters.
27
TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY
MAMMALOGY COLLECTION
22910
AMMOSPERMOPHILUS INTERPRES
TEXAS: BREWSTER CO.
19. J MI N» 0.7 MI E MARATHON
R L HENORICKSEN 399 M/SS 01 NOV 1979
A
TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY
mammalogy collection
22910
AMMOSPERMOPHILUS INTERPRES
TEXAS: BREWSTER CO.
19.0 MI N, 0.7 MI E MARATHON
R L HENDRICKSEN 399 M/SS 01 NOV 1974
TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY
HAMHALOGY COLLECTION
22910
AHNOSPERNOPHILUS INTERPRES
TEXAS: BREWSTER CO.
19.0 HI N. 0.7 MI E MARATHON
R L HENDRICKSEN 399 M/SS 01 NOV 197A
Fig. 16. Computer-generated label used on storage containers for skeletal material (see also Fig. 11).
A. Actual size as printed by computer. B. 25% reduction of original. C. 50% reduction of original.
dependent program called REGIS that is used for
accessioning purposes (see accessioning).
PROCESSING SPECIMENS
When cataloging procedures are completed, all the
material in the accession is prepared for further
processing. Depending on the nature of the material,
processing may vary considerably.
FLUID-PRESERVED MATERIAL
Fluid-preserved specimens, often referred to as
“alcoholics,” are soaked in fresh water to remove
fixatives, such as lO^^o formalin (Anderson, 1965;
Quay, 1974), so that the specimens can be transferred
to a permanent preservative. The standard
preservatives used in most Recent mammal
collections are 70*7o ethyl alcohol, 45 Vo isopropyl
alcohol, or occasionally 10 Vo buffered (with borax,
heximine, sodium phosphate, or ammonia solution)
formalin (Anderson, 1965). Because of the expense
and the need for tax clearance and security measures,
isopropyl alcohol is becoming more popular than
ethyl alcohol.
Once specimens have been washed and transferred
to alcohol, they are grouped typologically and each
taxon is placed in a jar of appropriate size. After
each group has been placed in a jar, a sufficient
amount of preservative is added to prevent
desiccation.
Because identification of individual specimens in a
jar is relatively difficult, a label is needed. The label
must be of a high-quality paper (Dowler and
Genoways, 1976; Sawyer, 1974) to insure durability
and retention of the printing or inscription on the
label when immersed in liquids (Anderson, 1965).
The minimum of information that should be
recorded on the label, for easy retrieval, is the taxon,
collection numbers, and collecting localities of the
enclosed specimens (Fig. 17). After the specimens
28
TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY
THE MUSEUM
Peromyscus pectoralls laceianus
SPECIES
CAT. NO.
LOCALITY
2 05 9 9 - 20602
Texas: Culberson Co., Guadalupe Peak Campground,
. . Jj.uad^ 1 upfi . Hts » . 2Ja tionaJ.. . P.axk
2.Q6.03..^..2a6.05..
22961 - 22962
Texas: Culberson Co., Lost Peak
Guadalupe Mt.s. Mattonal Park
Texas: Brewster Co., l8,6 ml N. 1.2 ml E Marathon
M-C-1
Fig. 17. Label which is placed in jar with fluid-preserved specimens. Originaf size of label was 64 by
127 millimeters. Another size, 95 by 140 millimeters, is used for labeling larger jars.
have been properly preserved, contained, and
labeled, they are ready to be installed in the
collection.
On occasion, anatomical parts or skeletal material
are removed from alcoholic specimens. When this is
done, the removed material should be labeled with
the name or acronym of the collection (Choate and
Genoways, 1975) and the collection’s catalog
number, and then, depending on the nature of the
material, incorporated in appropriate processing
procedures. For instance, skulls removed from
alcoholic specimens will be tagged, cleaned, washed,
labeled, and placed in an appropriate container.
SKINS
Generally, skins are prepared either as study skins
or raw hides. If they are prepared as study skins, then
further processing is minimal. This consists primarily
of maintaining the skins in temporary storage until
other parts of the specimen, such as skeletal material,
are processed and matched with respective skins. For
any material in temporary storage, arrangement in
numerical order by collection catalog number
facilitates further work and retrieval of any
specimen.
Processing of raw hides is more complicated
because tanning procedures are often required, and
therefore can be expensive and time-consuming.
Because tanning operations have been described in
the literature (Anderson, 1965; Dimpel, 1971;
Elwood, undated; Farnham, 1944, 1950, undated;
Fries, 1973; Grantz, 1960, 1969; Johnson, 1973) it is
possible for a collection to tan its own skins.
However, it is often more practical to have such work
done commercially (Dowler and Genoways, 1976;
Van Gelder, 1965). If commercial sources are used, it
is recommended that such sources be familiar with
the special requirements of scientific specimens.
When tanned skins are received, they may also be
placed in their proper sequence in the temporary
storage facilities.
SKELETAL MATERIAL
Processing of skeletal material is probably the
most complex and time-consuming activity of Recent
mammal collections. When most skeletal material is
acquired, it usually includes dried tissue connected to
the bone. The removal of this tissue, and cleaning of
the skeletal material makes this phase of collection
operations tedious. (Because of this, any effort to
remove nonskeletal tissues, such as muscles, blood,
and brains, during initial field preparation can
expedite later processing of skeletal material.) In an
effort to improve the efficiency of processing skeletal
material, several techniques have been developed.
CLEANING BY MACERATION: One method of
cleaning skeletal material is by maceration, which
involves keeping the material immersed in water until
all flesh decays. Although this technique requires
little effort, the disadvantages do not support its use.
Maceration often causes disarticulation and
discoloration of bones, offensive odors, and requires
considerable time for completion (Anderson, 1965;
Anon., 1958; Hildebrand, 1968; Knudsen, 1966;
Thompson and Robel, 1968).
29
CLEANING WITH CHEMICALS: Partially because of
the problems of straight maceration, numerous
modifications have been developed to minimize its
deficiencies. The primary changes have been the
application of heat (Anderson, 1965; Brown and
Twigg, 1967; Hildebrand, 1968; Howell, 1920;
Knudsen, 1966) or the use of heat in conjunction with
various chemicals, such as Clorox (Gross and Gross,
1966), trypsin, pancreatin (Hildebrand, 1968),
cresylic acid (Holden, 1914, 1916), hydrogen
peroxide (Howell, 1919), ammonium hydroxide
(Hoffmeister and Lee, 1963), potassium carbonate
(Iverson and Seabloom, 1963), sodium perborate
(Jakway et al., 1970), papain (Luther, 1949), dibasic
anhydrous sodium phosphate with trypsin (Watson
and Amerson, 1967), and enzyme-activated
detergents (Ossian, 1970). These modifications have
reduced processing time, offensive odors, and
discoloration of bones. However, the potential
damage of skeletal material caused by handling or by
excessive soaking and boiling tends to depreciate the
value of these methods (Gross and Gross, 1966;
Hooper, 1956; Luther, 1949). In the case of enzyme-
activated detergents, it has been noted (CM) that
after an extended time following cleaning with such
detergents, skeletal material starts showing signs of
deterioration that lead to destruction beyond use. It
has been suggested that the reason for this is that the
enzymes continue work even after cleaning has been
completed. Under certain circumstances, such as the
cleaning of large postcranial bones, the methods
described above may prove to be more useful.
CLEANING WITH LIVING ORGANISMS; Other devel-
opments in the processing of skeletal materials led to
the use of living organisms to do the primary
cleaning. Organisms that have demonstrated
capabilities of cleaning skeletal material include ants,
isopods (Bolin, 1935), decapods (Sealander and
Leonard, 1954), clothes moths (Banta, 1961),
mealworms (Allen and Neill, 1950), and dermestid
beetles (Borell, 1938; Hall and Russell, 1933; Hilde-
brand, 1968; Hooper, 1956; Laurie and Hill, 1951;
Sommer and Anderson, 1974; Tiemeier, 1940).
Although all these techniques have been successful to
some degree, certain problems may occur when using
any method.
Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) are capable of
quickly and thoroughly cleaning skeletal material
and are easily acquired and maintained (Peterson,
1964). However, the use of ants is not recommended
because of the secretion of formic acid deposited on
the skeletal material as it is being cleaned by the ants.
This acid will either cause or contribute to the disar-
ticulation of bones.
The use of crustaceans, such as isopods (Bolin,
1935) or decapods (Sealander and Leonard, 1954), is
greatly limited by several factors. One problem is ac-
quiring the organisms and maintaining a suitable en-
vironment (generally aquatic) for them. If too much
skeletal material is placed in the holding container,
maceration will begin, thus causing the water to be
polluted, and ultimately causing the death of the or-
ganisms and disarticulation of the skeletal material.
Another problem is selecting individuals that are not
large enough to damage the skeletal material
(Sealander and Leonard, 1954). Although the use of
crustaceans has several limitations, it does serve to
illustrate the diversity of organisms that may be used
in cleaning skeletal material.
The clothes moth (Lepidoptera: Tineidae) may dso
be successfully used in preparing osteological
specimens (Banta, 1961). In addition, these insects
are easily acquired and maintained (Griswold, 1933;
Heal, 1942; Peterson, 1964). Because of the habits of
clothes moths, a severe problem can develop if this
insect is allowed to infest the collection. Infestation is
facilitated by the mobility of the adults and the small
inconspicuous size of the larvae. For this reason,
strict control of the colony and regular fumigation of
the collection are necessary if clothes moths are to be
used (see maintenance — Fumigation).
Utilization of mealworms (Coleoptera: Tinebri-
onidae) for cleaning osteological specimens allows
easy control and maintenance, of skeletal processing
(Allen and Neill, 1950; Peterson, 1964). Under suit-
able conditions, this technique can be very effec-
tive, resulting in thorough and rapid cleaning of
skeletal material. For the best results, it is better to let
the mealworms clean the material while it is fresh or
moist. However, to do so creates a potential mildew
problem that can be toxic to the mealworms (Peter-
son, 1964). Special care also needs to be taken to pre-
vent small skulls from being damaged by the larger
mealworms. Because of this, the utilization of meal-
worms would probably be most useful in processing
only larger specimens.
Dermestids (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) probably
have provided the most generally favorable results in
osteological cleaning. Not only do dermestids
satisfactorily clean all sizes of skeletal material, but
they are also easily acquired and, with proper
facilities, controlled and maintained. As a result, this
30
method of skeletal preparation has been discussed in
detail in the literature and has become a standard
procedure in many Recent mammal collections. This
method of cleaning skeletal material has not only
proven to be superior to other techniques (Hall and
Russell, 1933; Hildebrand, 1968; Hooper, 1950; Tie-
mier, 1940) but has also been useful in cleaning other
types of skeletal material, such as mummified (Case,
1959) or alcoholic (de la Torre, 1951) specimens.
Generally, such special specimens must be soaked for
several hours, air dried, and coated with fat. Hooper
(1956) found cod liver oil and bacon grease to be
among the best fats to use. Because of the importan-
ce of dermestids, various studies and observations
concerning their use, maintenance, and natural
history have been described (Grady, 1928; Heal,
1942; Peterson, 1964; Roth and Willis, 1950; Russell,
1947; Sommer and Anderson, 1974). Russell (1947)
recommends that, ideally, dermestids should be kept
in a dark area at a temperature of 18.2° to 29.3°C
(65° to 85°F). The availability of moisture for adult
dermestids is necessary for egg production (Russell,
1947), which is necessary if the colony is to be main-
tained. However, a lack of moisture will cause a
longer larval period (Roth and Willis, 1950), which
would be desirable. Because of this paradox, Texas
Tech University has maintained a very active der-
mestid colony on a restricted basis. Adults are
removed from the main dermestid colony and are
used for establishing smaller breeding colonies with
more suitable conditions (Peterson, 1964). By supple-
menting the main colony with the breeding colonies
that have larvae, a high concentration of larvae can
be maintained, thus expediting the cleaning process
and obtaining maximum utilization of adult and lar-
val dermestids.
Because dermestids are so effective in cleaning
skeletal material, certain precautions must be taken
to prevent damage to delicate skeletal material,
damage to tags, and loss or mixing of disarticulated
skeletal material. Damage to specimens and tags can
be restricted by regular examination of the cleaning
process. Further restrictions can be implemented by
applying formalin to tags and body parts (for exam-
ple, joints, to prevent disarticulation) to control the
rate of feeding by dermestids (Sommer and Ander-
son, 1974). To prevent loss or mixing of specimen
parts, each specimen should be stored with cotton in
separate containers (Scheffer, 1940; Sommer and
Anderson, 1974). The use of cotton provides ad-
ditional protection for the skeletal material, protec-
tion for the dermestids, suitable habitat for molting
and pupating, and restricts the accumulation of
debris on the specimens (Sommer and Anderson,
1974). Because storage of individual specimens in
separate containers can lead to waste of space, disor-
ganization of material, and difficulty in utilization,
Texas Tech University has developed special trays
having movable partitions that allow adjustment of
compartment sizes to the size of the specimen (Fig.
18). These trays can be nearly stacked and can hold
several hundred specimens in a neat and orderly
fashion.
Fig. 18. Trays utilized in dermestid beetle colony, which in turn
is used for cleaning of skeletal material. The individual dividers
are removable, thus allowing alteration of the size of the
individual compartments as necessary. At Texas Tech
University three sizes of trays are used. Two of these are shown
(note larger tray in foreground).
Although the dermestid may be very useful in os-
teological preparations, it is also a potential threat to
Recent mammal collections because of the damage
they can do to prepared skins. For this reason it is
necessary that the dermestid colony be maintained in
special facilities. Such facilities should include
31
humidity and temperature controls, and a box for the
colony (Gennaro and Salb, 1972; Hall and Russell,
1933; Vorhies, 1948). This box should be resistant to
insect damage and escape, and large enough to meet
the needs of the collection. Because of specifications
for effective maintenance and control of dermestid
colonies, the use of commercial environmental cham-
bers can provide ideal facilities. However, for further
assurance, such facilities should be isolated,
preferably in another building, from the mammal
collection (Gennaro and Salb, 1972; Hall and
Russell, 1933; Vorhies, 1948). Even these precautions
do not guarantee the protection of the collection, and
therefore, regular fumigation (see maintenance —
Fumigation) is required.
FINAL PREPARATION: Following the basic cleaning,
the skeletal material is processed through washing
and scraping procedures to remove bloodstains, ten-
dons, and other tissues not removed by previous
processes. Skeletal material is first soaked in a solu-
tion of ammonium hydroxide (one part ammonia
and three parts water) for 12 hours, followed by 24
hours of soaking in fresh water (Borell, 1939; Hall
and Russell, 1933). For some specimens, particularly
those having large bones, special degreasing proced-
ures may be incorporated (Anderson, 1965;
Finlayson, 1932; Martin, 1964; Sherman, 1925;
Sommer and Anderson, 1974). Next, excess tissues
remaining on the skeletal material are removed by
hand through scraping and picking with dissecting in-
struments. Small amounts of remaining tissue and
stains may be removed by placing the skeletal
material in a diluted Clorox solution. Care should be
taken to prevent soaking material too long or in ex-
cessive concentrations because skeletal material can
rapidly deteriorate in such solutions. When the
skeletal material is completely clean, it is dried and
placed in appropriate containers (for example, vials
and boxes) to prevent loss of parts. For further
processing, the material may be placed in temporary
storage and arranged in numerical order by collection
catalog number to expedite retrieval and organiza-
tion of subsequent processes.
To further insure against losing parts, all bones
must be labeled with permanent black ink. If the size
of the bone permits, the collection initials, collection
catalog number, and sex should be included in the la-
beling. For ease in retrieval and installation, a label
(see Processing Data — Labels) may be included in the
container with the skeletal material (Fig. 19).
SPECIAL ITEMS
Special processing procedures of an acquisition
will mainly depend on the diversity of material it in-
cludes. Some items may simply be installed in the ap-
propriate storage facilities (see storage). Other items
may need to be processed by special techniques
unique to the item in question. Such techniques
would include taxidermy of specimens for exhibit
purposes (Moyer, 1953), removal of skeletal material
from scats or bird pellets (Giles, 1971), or clearing of
embryos or anatomical parts (Hildebrand, 1968;
Taylor, \961a, \961b). In some instances, special
processing may require sending material, such as
parasites, to a specialist. Whatever the item, referen-
ce to the literature or consultation with an expert is
recommended to determine proper processing.
INSTALLATION
The final stage of processing is reassociating all
parts of the specimen in temporary storage. In most
cases, this procedure will require only placing skeletal
material with the corresponding skin. When all parts
of the specimen have been centralized in temporary
storage, the identification, data, and any other
related information should be carefully checked for
consistency and accuracy. If any problems exist, such
specimens should remain in temporary storage until
the situation is corrected.
Once a specimen, or preferably a group of speci-
mens (for example, an accession), has been checked,
it may be placed in the appropriate position in the re-
search collection. This position is generally prede-
termined by the method of collection arrangement
used by the institution (see processing— Organiza-
tion and Arrangement). The arrangement of storage
may, or may not, be the same as the arrangement
used for cataloging procedures. In order to expedite
installation and subsequent removal and replacement
of specimens, it may be more convenient to arrange
specimens of the same taxon and collecting locality in
numerical order by collection catalog number (for
example, TTU). This procedure will eliminate the
need to include in the collection arrangement any ex-
tra data (for example, date, preparator, preparation
number) which would otherwise complicate the
arrangement.
The cases in the research collection and their corre-
sponding drawers should be equipped with holders
for labels that indicate the contents. Adequate expan-
sion space should be incorporated throughout the
storage facilities. Failure to do so may result in
32
Fig. 19. Labeling of prepared skeletal material. Note the following: All bones of sufficient size are marked with
at least the collection catalog number; original field tag is kept with specimen; a typed label is placed on top of
the storage box; a typed label is placed inside the box.
reshuffling specimens each time a new acquisition is
installed. If space permits, specimens of different
taxa or different localities (for example, states)
should be placed in separate drawers or separate
trays within the drawers.
The placement and orientation of mammal
specimens within drawers or trays (which are used to
subdivide individual drawers) is determined primarily
by their size, quantity, and the collection
arrangement system used by the institution.
Generally, specimens are arranged in drawers from
front to back, starting on the left side with specimens
lying perpendicular to the long axis of the drawer; or,
from left to right, starting at the front with specimens
lying parallel to the long axis of the drawer. If the
quantity and size of the specimens justify the use of
trays to subdivide the drawer, the arrangement
within a tray will also be either from front to back or
left to right. The sequence of trays within the drawer
will depend on how the individual specimens are
oriented. Containers (for example, vials and boxes)
for skulls and postcranial material belonging to skins
may be kept in smaller trays, designed for the pur-
pose. Such containers are normally placed with the
corresponding skins. Large skins and skulls can be
stored parallel to the long axis of the drawer from left
to right or perpendicular to the long axis of the
drawer from front to rear (for example, USNM), or
rear to front (for example, KU). Exceptionally large
study skins may require diagonal placement within
drawers.
Specimens consisting of only skeletal material may
be installed with the skins and skulls or they may be
placed at the end of the appropriate family (for
example, TTU), genus (for example, KU), or species ,
(for example, UCONN). Skeletal material removed
from alcoholic specimens may be stored in the same
manner or as a unit by itself (for example, TTU).
33
Fig. 20. Collection storage area for the Department of Mammalogy, The
Museum of Texas Tech University. Note specimen storage cases, storage for
fluid-preserved specimens, and hanging of large skulls on a screen rack in
the background.
STORAGE
Mammal specimens must be housed in a manner
that will insure their continued existence in good
condition. Utilization of storage areas imposes
problems that include economical and practical
allocation of space. Anderson (1973) suggests that
$1.25 per square foot is a valid figure for the average
cost of floor space for most collections. Storage areas
and facilities must be reasonably fireproof, main-
tained at proper temperatures and relative
humidities, protected from excessive sunlight and in-
sect pests (American Society of Mammalogists,
1974), equipped with adequate lighting in both
storage and work areas, and be well ventilated.
Modern physical plants should contain a dependable
air fiitration/cooling system. Daily temperature fluc-
tuations should not exceed 8.3°C (I5"F) (Van
Gelder, 1965). Hazardous substances must be kept
away from specimen storage areas. Good security
measures in general should be exercised.
The American Society of Mammalogists (1974)
strongly urges institutions that are unable to provide
minimal storage and maintenance standards, as de-
fined by the Society, to transfer their holdings to an
institution that is able to do so. Until a transfer can
be conducted in such a situation, curators responsible
for inactive collections may care for them with a
minimal expenditure of time and money, as
suggested by Van Gelder (1965).
Specimens must be shielded from the damaging ef-
fects of light. The ultraviolet and the bluish portions
of the visible spectrum have the greatest ability to
stimulate chemical change. It should be noted that a
5.5°C (10°F) rise in temperature can double the rate
of photochemical activity (Stolow, 1966). Although
less potent than daylight, incadescent and fluorescent
lamplight does contain ultraviolet components. The
far more desirable fluorescent lamps can be fitted
with acrylic filters that nearly eliminate the
deleterious wavelengths, while not appreciably
altering the rest of the spectrum (Stolow, 1966).
Storage facilities must also protect specimens from
dust and atmospheric pollutants. Sulphur dioxide,
for example, causes leather to become brittle. Mold,
an additional threat to collections, may begin to form
at a relative humidity of 80% or above and at a
minimum temperature of 20°C (68°F).
Ideally, the entire collection should be on the same
floor with offices and laboratories (an exception
being the dermestid colony). All pertinent data and
records associated with the specimens should be near
the collection. In most cases, the largest allocation of
floor space will be for specimen storage (Fig. 20).
Ample work space should also be available.
Curatorial and supporting staff offices, library
space, laboratory, and equipment/supply storage
areas are vital and should be included in all Recent
mammal collection facilities (Fig. 21).
34
Fig. 21. Equipment storage area for the Department of
Mammalogy, The Museum of Texas Tech University.
Mammal specimens and their associated data are
prepared in a variety of ways. It is advisable,
wherever possible, to position all parts of a specimen
prepared in the same way in close proximity to
facilitate utilization. Each type of storage requires
ingenuity and has characteristics and problems at
least partially unique to it, as described below.
SKIN AND SKELETAL MATERIAL
Small and medium size mammal specimens,
classically consisting of a rounded study skin and ac-
companying skull, normally constitute the largest
percentage of a collection’s holdings. More recently
though, postcranial material has been collected and
preserved in increasing quantities.
Specimens preserved as skin and skeletal material
should be protectively housed in permanent storage
cabinets or cases (Fig. 22) that are essentially air-tight
to exclude light, dust, and insect pests, and to retard
loss of fumigant. Cases may be constructed entirely
of wood, metal, or a combination of both. Metal
cases provide the greatest protection from fire.
Several manufacturers produce cabinets of various ,,
dimensions that meet museum specifications (Dowler !’
and Genoways, 1976). Knudsen (1966) gives instruc-
tions for the construction of a “suitable and inexpen-
sive” wooden storage case. While affording security '
to their contents, permanent storage cabinets should L
also be of modular construction, to allow for |
maximum flexibility of use. Cases should not be so I
massive as to be virtually immovable. A white j
cabinet exterior has the dual advantage of reflecting \
more light for better visibility as well as helping to j
maintain lower temperatures within the case. |
The specimens themselves rest in wooden, wood-
masonite, or metal-masonite drawers (Fig. 23). The
storage cases are equipped with metal or hardwood |
guides for accommodating drawers. The hardwood i
runners of the wooden drawers usually require I
waxing. Specimens are usually placed in pasteboard
trays available in various modular dimensions (Dow-
ler and Genoways, 1976). These “paper” trays are
recommended for use wherever specimen size per-
mits. They provide a clean, white, splinter-free sur-
face for specimens and allow removal of several
mammals at a time, while enabling a subdivision of !
the large drawers into more convenient size units. I
The standard size museum case ,may hold ap-
proximately 300 specimens of average size (300 mm !
total length). When single-stacked, the case tops j
become convenient layout space. When double-
stacked, they allow for a doubling of the storage |
space on the same floor area. They should be ;
arranged in banks, back to back, creating ac-
cessibility to cases on both sides of the aisle, and
spaced so as to permit easy tray removal and replace-
ment.
Glass or plastic vials of various sizes (Fig. 24) can
be used for storing skeletal material (Dowler and
Genoways, 1976; Long, 1970). Glass vials are
relatively expensive and break more easily than
plastic vials. Plastic vials scratch, crack, discolor, or
cloud in the presence of certain fumigants (see main-
tenance— Fumigation), are flammable and hence,
have a shorter life span. These negative properties
may outweigh the initial savings gained by their lower
cost.
Stoppers made of various plastics and of different
design can be used. These are generally much better
than the cork stoppers, which become brittle and
may break with age. Stoppers should create an air-
tight seal, yet be easily removable. Snap-cap lids are
not as desirable because their rim does not allow for
level placement of the vial on its side. In addition to
35
Fig. 22. Specimen storage cases of two types. Numerous other construction types are available. Left, Department of Mammalogy, American
Museum of Natural History; right. Department of Mammalogy, The Museum of Texas Tech University (purchased from Steel Fixture Co.).
these types of lids, metal caps are occasionally used.
Boxes of various kinds (Fig. 24) are also available
for skeletal material that is too large for vials.
Ideally, they should be of a modular nature allowing
for most efficient use of space within case drawers.
All skeletal material should be placed in containers
that are neither too small nor too large for them.
Certain specimens may require a different orien-
tation, than previously described (see processing —
Installation), within trays and drawers in order to
avoid injury. Animals with bushy tails, long ears,
vibrissae and the like, must be stored carefully to
prevent their destruction through overcrowding.
Drawers must be spaced in a way that will prevent
damage to the specimens underneath.
Specimens consisting only of skeletal material or
skeletal material removed from specimens preserved
in alcohol may have labels that are marked or color-
coded (for example, blue for skeletal material only,
or yellow for skeletal material removed from alco-
holics). This procedure can facilitate ease in
handling and utilization. Further ease in handling
may be possible by storing such material separately,
as opposed to mixing it with specimens consisting of
skins and skeletal material (see processing —
Installation).
Tanned hides pose storage problems different from
those encountered with study skins. The large, long-
established collections have traditionally kept tanned
hides in refrigerated “fur vaults” (Fig. 25). Usually
the hides are hung from horizontal pipes. An S-
shaped hook passes over the bar supporting the
skins by means of a stout cord attached to the
specimen. The cord usually passes through the eye
holes or nostrils. These vaults are equipped with
temperature and relative-humidity control systems
that should maintain a temperature of approximately
4.4° to 7. 1 °C (40° to 45°F) and a relative humidity of
36
Fig. 23. Arrangement of specimens in a storage drawer (front of drawer to the left). Note that different taxa are placed in
separate specimen trays, and that internal room for expansion of the collection is provided. The first specimen in the drawer is
in the upper left-hand corner. Specimens are arranged from front to back in each row of trays.
^ f ijj
Fig. 24. Curatorial supplies used for the storage of specimens in the Recent mammal
collection at Texas Tech University. Included in the photograph are skeleton storage
boxes, specimen and skull trays, container for fluid-preserved specimens and vials for
skulls and skeletons (see Dowler and Genoways, 1976, for specifications of these items).
37
Fig. 25. Method of storage of tanned skins in a fur vault. Note technique for hanging the skins. This
photograph was taken in the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas.
38
approximately 50 to 55%. To guard against fires, a
sprinkler system is a necessity in this type of poten-
tially hazardous storage situation. Periodic
fumigation is a required precaution as well. Specimen
arrangement within fur vaults might be a taxonomic,
geographic, size, or a combination system depending
on the size of the collection and the dimensions of the
storage chamber.
Dr. Henry W. Setzer (personal communication) of
the National Museum of Natural History feels that
fur vaults are no longer necessary where proper air-
conditioning and humidity controls exist. He cites the
uneconomical nature of vaults, security problems,
and inefficient storage capabilities as reasons for
their elimination. Furthermore, large skins often
develop tears at the point of support as a consequen-
ce of their great weight. Setzer finds case storage of
tanned hides to be an acceptable alternative. Hides
should be loosely rolled and tied with the tags ex-
posed. If cases are not available, then hides may be
placed in boxes or plastic bags, and stored in a cool,
dry, dark place. Care should always be taken to
avoid rolling the hides too tightly.
Untanned hides that are thoroughly dry should be
stored in plastic and heavily fumigated (Van Gelder,
1965). Raw hides are sometimes held in cold-storage
facilities prior to tanning.
Generally, skeletal material is easier to house than
skins. Deterioration from over-exposure to sunlight
and danger from insect infestations do not present
major problems for such materials. Rapid tempera-
ture fluctuations, dessication, and dust are the chief
causes of concern to osteological collections. Jackson
(1926) mentioned 21 °C (70° F) as being a proper tem-
perature for housing such material. Dudley and
Wilkinson (1968) recommended a constant relative
humidity of at least 55% for ivory. Large skulls or
disarticulated postcranial skeletons are best housed
in kraft boxes within air-tight cabinets, in cardboard
boxes, or simply in deep wooden drawers inside
Fig. 26. Storage of large skulls by suspending them from screen racks. Photograph on the left shows skull in
place on the rack. Photograph on the right illustrates how the bracket, used for hanging the skull, is attached.
This method of storage is used at the University of Kansas and Texas Tech University.
39
Fig. 27. Storage of large skulls by suspending them, by the base of the antlers or horns, between two parallel horizontal rods. Photograph
taken at the University of Montana.
museum cases. Additionally, large heavy skeletons
may be conveniently stored in small wooden rolling
cases. Boxes containing specimens may be placed on
tops of double-stacked cases if more suitable ac-
commodations are not available. The smallest
osteological elements of a specimen should be placed
in vials or boxes within the larger containers. Ver-
tebrae may be conveniently strung in proper order to
avoid loss and to facilitate retrieval. Hollister (1923)
described a special treatment that might be accorded
incisor teeth of ruminants. Many mammal collec-
tions (for example, KU and TTU) suspend their large
skulls from a vertical wire screen positioned against a
wall. Skulls are supported by means of a U-shaped
metal brace bolted to them just below the foramen
magnum (Fig. 26). Corresponding postcranial ma-
terial, if present, is stored elsewhere. Although the
hanging of large skulls does solve space problems,
such material inadvertently becomes exposed to
mechanical damage and dust. Jackson (1926)
suggested suspending large horned and antlered
skulls horizontally between two parallel rods, sup-
porting the skulls at the horn or antler bases (Fig.
27). Rather inexpensive storage racks of perforated
structural steel and ordinary wooden planking
(Colbert, 1961) are also strong and highly adaptable
storage facilities for large skeletal material (Fig. 28).
A disadvantage is that the lack of drawers does not
allow easy access. Dust and security problems may
also be encountered. A system in which osteological
material is stored within fiberglass tote boxes on
wooden shelves is described by Lewis and Redfield
(1970). These boxes, with lids, originally used on
assembly lines in factories, may be stacked inside one
another when empty. Each shelf unit holds 20 such
boxes. An alternative method of storing excep-
tionally large skeletons (for example, cetaceans) is to
mount such specimens for display purposes (Fig. 29).
40
Fig 28. Storage of large skulls and skeletons by placing them on wooden shelving. Photograph taken
at the University of Montana.
41
Fig. 29. Mounting specimens for display is one method of storing skeletons, particularly
exceptionally large ones. These cetacean skeletons are on exhibit at the British Museum
(Natural History).
Uncleaned osteological specimens must be kept dry
and protected from insect attack. Unprocessed
material should not be stored in airtight containers,
because this may result in mildew or decay. The ad-
dition of a dessicant or fungicide (for example,
thymol crystals or silica gel) may be necessary if
mildew is a problem.
FLUID-PRESERVED MATERIAL
Specimens preserved in alcohol and other preser-
vatives may be stored in vessels of various sizes,
shapes, and descriptions (Fig. 24). Perhaps the best
glass jars for small and medium-size mammals are
the wide-mouth variety, equipped with rubber
washers and glass lids held firmly in place by wire
bails. These jars are becoming more difficult to ob-
tain. Glass Mason or Ball jars, which have a two-
piece metal lid, have also received extensive collec-
tion use (Palmer, 1974). Currently, the most com-
monly used glass jar is probably the wide-mouth
variety with a bakelite lid (for example, UCONN,
MHP, TTU, and UPS). The lids, which may be
purehased separately, can be fitted with
polyethylene rather than vinyl-coated paper liners.
Polyethylene lids are also available for glass jars.
Cork and neoprene rubber stoppers should never be
used to cap vials containing alcohol. Both will react
chemically with the preservative, lowering its pH as
well as darkening the solution (Levi, 1966).
Specimens stored in fluid may be housed in steel
cabinets with hinged doors or placed on metal
shelving (Colbert, 1961). Removable safety guards
may be attached to the front of the shelf. Alcoholic
specimens are particularly sensitive to sunlight and
should be stored in dark places. A method of
possibly preventing color changes would be the use
of butyl hydroxytoluene in formalin solutions
(White and Peters, 1969). The Royal Ontario
Museum reports the use of “light-proof” curtains
to shield their specimens located on metal shelving.
A separate fireproof, windowless room designed for
storage of alcoholic specimens is ideal. Jars should
be protected from excessive heat. Local regulations
concerning fire prevention should be consulted.
Jackson (1926) suggested the maintenance of 21 °C
(70°F) for storage of specimens in alcohol.
Specimens should not be crowded into the storage
vessels. Usually the volume of preservative should
be twice the volume of the specimens (Zweifel,
1966). Specimens too large to fit into the largest
glass jars can be housed in metal (stainless steel)
tanks, plastic carboys, concrete vats, or earthenware
crocks. Stainless steel tanks fitted with dollies and
casters are ideal, but expensive. The tank lids with
their snap fasteners and neoprene gaskets produce
the required tight seal. An inexpensive method of
manufacturing large storage tanks of plywood.
42
Fig. 30. A portion of the fluid-preserved specimens at the National Museum of Natural
History. This collection is arranged by size of containers rather than systematically. Each shelf
position is numbered (note on upper shelf), and a card file is kept for recording the position of
each specimen.
43
lined with polyester resins, has been described by
Dundee (1962).
Embryological and anatomical materials are
sometimes stored separately. More often they are
housed with the main collection of alcoholic
specimens.
Some institutions (for example, ROM, USNM,
MVZ, FSM, KU, and UPS) maintain holdings of
digestive tracts and their contents. By using 2.5% to
10% solutions of buffered formalin (Martin, 1949;
Quay, 1974), or perhaps freezing facilities (for
example, WFBM), such material may be stored near
the main fluid-preserved collection, but it is usually
housed separately in phylogenetic arrangement.
Storage of frozen material is discussed below.
Cleared and stained glandes are stored in vials of
glycerine. The addition of a few crystals of thymol
to the glycerine helps prevent mold growth (Taylor,
1967o, \961b). Glandes may be kept with the bacula
(if those are housed separately), fluid-preserved
holdings, or by themselves.
Fluid-preserved material may be arranged
phylogenetically to the subfamily, generic, or
species level and then perhaps alphabetically. Such
material is stored separately — not with the remain-
der of the collection. If it is not feasible, do not
arrange jars numerically by collection catalog num-
ber but rather by jar size within taxa. At the
National Museum of Natural History, jars are
arranged on shelves according to size without
regard to taxon (Fig. 30). Each jar is assigned a
specific shelf location based on this criterion. A
phylogenetic cardfile giving the location of each
specimen is maintained. Advantages of this system
include better utilization of space and the elimina-
tion of reshuffling as new material is incorporated.
However, retrieval of specimens belonging to any
given taxon may be rather time-consuming. The
maintenance of a specimen cardfile likewise requires
substantial staff time.
Alcohol levels may be readily discerned if larger
vessels are placed behind smaller ones. Metal tanks,
crocks, and carboys should be kept under counters,
and in cool places, where they will not impede
movement of workers.
SPECIAL ITEMS
TYPE SPECIMENS
Type specimens are certainly among the most
valuable holdings of any collection of Recent mam-
mals. It is stressed that institutions lacking the proper
storage facilities, and having small collections that
are infrequently visited by professionals, make
arrangements to deposit their type specimens with
large and responsible collections (American Society
of Mammalogists, 1974; Baker, 1970).
Nearly every institution houses its holotypes in
special units, such as safes (for example, UWZM),
locking cabinets (for example, MVZ, KU, and UPS),
or other storage units removed from the regular
collection (for example, TCWC). Traditionally,
holotypes have had special, often red, vial/box labels
and skin tags (Fig. 31). Drawer and case labels some-
times are also marked with red labels (Fig. 32). Holo-
types preserved in alcohol also have special notation
and are stored apart from the remainder of the
alcoholic collection. Type specimens are normally
arranged phylogenetically. Study skins are occasion-
ally enclosed in plastic to provide added protection
(for example, UPS). Type specimens are stored in
separate pasteboard trays at some collections (for ex-
ample, USNM).
Some collections (for example, ROM and TCWC)
store the original published descriptions with their
holotype specimens. It is wise to provide at least the
skin tag and the museum catalog number with a
notation as to the author of the description and the
journal and year in which it was published.
The Department of Mammalogy at The Royal On-
tario Museum follows rather extensive documenting
procedures with its type holdings. Black and white
prints are made of the skull, and color transparencies
are made of the skin. Skulls are usually extracted
from alcoholic types and dried temporarily for
photographing. Usually, drawings of soft palate and
facial regions are made as well.
TEACHING COLLECTIONS
Many collections, especially those affiliated with
universities, maintain a separate cataloged or un-
cataloged mammal collection for use in the
classroom. These specimens must endure a great deal
of use and abuse and hence must be of an expendable
nature. Research specimens should not be loaned for
teaching or exhibition purposes under normal cir-
cumstances. Mammal specimens lacking data, while
worthless for research, may be valuable additions to
a teaching collection. These specimens should be
clearly marked as to their nature. Such collections
should be housed and cared for in the same manner
as the research holdings.
44
Fig. 31 . Arrangement of holotypes at the National Museum of Natural History. Upper, holotype of Thomomys talpoides trivialis positioned
in its individual specimen tray; lower, holotypes of pocket gophers as they are arranged in their specimen-storage-case drawer. All holotypes
have supplementary red holotype labels.
45
Fig. 32. A portion of the holotype collection at the National Museum of Natural History. Cases containing holotypes are marked
with red labels.
If limited teaching material results in a heavy
reliance on the research collection, it is suggested that
the teaching collection be equipped with casts and
models of the needed skeletal material. Several
techniques have been described that can provide
high-quality material for teaching purposes (Long,
1970; Madsen, 1974; Schrimper, 1973; Waters and
Savage, 1971). This technique for building a teaching
collection will produce more durable specimens;
allow easy and comparatively less expensive
replacement of specimens (assuming the original
mold or cast is saved); allow as many replicas as
needed; encourage the learning of valid taxonomic
characters, instead of extraneous features unique to
the individual specimen (for example, broken bones,
missing teeth, or foreign markings); and, allow in-
corporation of rare and endangered species (for
example, Euderma maculatum, Mustela nigripes.
and Enhydra lutris) and other protected or hard-to-
obtain species (for example, Ornithorhynchus,
Tachyglossus, and Zaglossus).
DOMESTIC MAMMALS
In addition to the special collections outlined
above, some institutions maintain domestic mam-
mal collections as separate entities for purposes of
research, reference material, or educational/
exhibitional purposes. These specimens receive the
same treatment as those in the regular collections.
More often, domestic mammals are housed among
the regular collections and accorded no special
treatment.
WHOLE MOUNTS AND TROPHY HEADS
Whole mounts and trophy heads, temporarily or
permanently removed from display, again present
some unique storage challenges. Sometimes these
46
mounts are cataloged specimens and may even be of
great scientific as well as educational value. One
shold be aware that museum catalog numbers and
other data may be attached to the underside of the
pedestal or plaque on which the mount rests. Whole
mounts can be stroed on shelves, in cases or in boxes,
size permitting. Such specimens must also be shielded
from light, dust, and insect attack. Black plastic
sheeting can be draped over free-standing mounts.
Mounted trophy heads with large antlers, horns, or
tusks represent one of the most difficult storage
situations to a collection of Recent mammals. They
may be stored in large cabinets (which results in a
waste of space) or they may simply be laid on shelves
or hung from walls and draped with plastic. Mounted
mammal specimens, if few in number, may not
warrant phylogenetic arrangement and may be
segregated from related taxa because of sheer size.
Articulated and mounted skeletal material (for
example, whole mounts) require similar storage con-
siderations. They may be housed in cardboard boxes
or stored in cabinets, depending upon their size.
SPECIAL OSTEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS
Special osteological material, such as bacula,
hyoid apparati, or ear ossicles, are normally stored
with the use of skull boxes, vials, insect pins (Friley,
1947), or microscope slides (White, 1951), depending
primarily upon size and nature of the item. Although
some collections maintain separate storage facilities
for special osteological holdings, such materials are
often stored with corresponding skeletal material.
When stored alone, they are best arranged phylo-
genetically. When stored with the skeletal material,
they may simply be loose within the container, or
still better, kept in tiny insect “genitalia vials” or
gelatin capsules (Dowler and Genoways, 1976).
Colored capsules are more readily located than are
clear ones. The major disadvantage of gelatin cap-
sules is their tendency to fuse under hot, humid
conditions.
MICROSCOPE SLIDES
While various types of material lend themselves to
preparation as microscope mounts (for example,
bacula, hairs, tissue sections, blood smears, sperm,
and karyotypes), such preparations are subject to
damage by light and by temperature fluctuations.
Storage of microscope slides (Fig. 33) is governed
by the type of preparation. Slides may be stored ver-
tically or flat in plastic or wooden slide boxes having
a capacity of 12 to 100 slides, or in specially designed
cabinets having a capacity of 400 to 1600 slides.
Fig. 33. Two types of storage units for slides. The unit in the
foreground will hold 100 slides stored vertically. The unit in the
background will hold 1600 slides stored horizontally.
These modular units of wood with aluminum
drawers may be conveniently stacked and placed on
shelves. Utilization of any particular storage unit will
depend primarily on the nature of the preparation.
Slide collections can be arranged phylogenetically,
numerically by acquisition, or in any other way
that circumstances require. At Texas Tech Uni-
versity, a special slide collection for cytological
material is maintained. Because the collection is
very extensive and used continuously, special num-
bers and catalogs (Fig. 34) are used for ease in
processing and use. Each specimen used for cyto-
logical preparations receives a sequential number
from the catalog. This number is cross-referenced
with the preparation number and collection catalog
number in the respective catalogs.
FROZEN MATERIALS
Collections of living mammalian cells are still in
preliminary stages of development. The Univeristy of
Texas and Texas Tech University maintain a collec-
tion of frozen living cells. Curatorial techniques are
presently being formulated at Texas Tech University.
At present, cultures are stored in plastic vials with
47
Fig. 34. Page from catalog used for recording data on specimens that have been karyotyped and
tissue-cultured at Texas Tech University. This catalog, designed by Robert J. Baker, has consecutively
numbered pages in a bound volume. Original page size was 225 by 150 millimeters.
48
plastic screw caps within liquid nitrogen freezer units
at approximately -195°C (-320°F). The vials can be
kept within stationary or portable units which have a
capacity of approximately 200 cell cultures. A
numerical (by collection catalog number) or
phylogenetic arrangement of samples may be used
for storage.
Entire mammals or non-living tissues may be
stored in a frozen state at -76°C (-105°F) for en-
zymatic analysis, as is done at the Univeristy of
California, Berkeley (Lidicker eto/., 1974).
CASTS AND REPLICAS
Plastic and plaster casts of entire skulls, skeletal
elements, toothrows, and tracks, and latex brain en-
docasts are occasionally found in collections of
Recent mammals. Fragile plaster casts, like
osteological specimens, must be protected from rapid
temperature variations and mechanical damage.
They may be laid in boxes or trays lined with cotton
(Van Gelder, 1965), and arranged phylogenetically,
numerically, or be size.
MISCELLANEOUS
Parasites removed from mammal specimens (for
example, in the course of field studies) are normally
stored in alcohol or mounted on microscope slides.
They are often sent to specialists outside the in-
stitution or deposited with the appropriate collection
of the home institution. Specimens in vials are
treated in a similar manner as other fluid-preserved
material.
Items such as scats, pellets, and cheek-pouch con-
tents may be present in collection holdings. Such
items may be stored separately, contained in vials,
skull boxes, and the like, and arranged taxonomically,
numerically (by collection catalog number), or by
size. They may be stored in the dry state indefinitely,
but must be fumigated periodically. Murie (1954)
stated that a liberal coating of Ambroid Cement or
glue varnish, applied with a brush, serves to protect
scats from insects as well as helping to maintain their
shape. Other types of coatings, such as spray or
brush-on acrylics and other plastics, have also been
successfully used (for example, UPS). These forms of
protection may also help to repel moisture. As an
alternative, such materials may be kept in weak
solutions of buffered formalin.
Permanent scanning-electron-microscope mounts
may be attached to the underside of a plastic vial
stopper with an adhesive. Because the stopper is in a
vial stored in an inverted position, the mount is safe
from dust and mechanical damage.
DOCUMENTS
WRITTEN RECORDS
Written records in the form of collector’s field
notes and catalogs, specimen data sheets, collection
catalogs, card files, accession records, permits, and
pertinent correspondence are immensely valuable,
and enhance specimen value enormously. A specimen
without proper data is virtually worthless for re-
search purposes.
Excessive moisture, dryness, insects, and strong
sunlight are potential threats to paper. A moderate
amount of sunlight, however, is helpful in preventing
mold growth (Dice, 1925). Thymol crystals may
likewise inhibit mold growth (Anon., 1962; Duckett,
1975). Proper air-conditioning will also help prevent
damage by fungus (Duckett, 1975). Relative
humidity should not exceed 50% and temperatures
should not exceed 21 °C (71°F) in paper storage areas
(Duckett, 1975; Dudley and Wilkinson, 1968). All
paper should be stored in acid-free-paper storage
boxes (USNM). One of the most popular containers
for archival storage is the “Hollinger carton” (source
- Hollinger Corporation, 3810 S. Four Mile Run Dr.,
Arlington, Virginia 22206). For more information on
this carton and the proper care of documents refer to
Duckett (1975).
Library materials are best stored in wooden
cabinets, or on wooden shelves, provided with glass
fronts as protection from dust, especially when the
building lacks air-conditioning. Van Gelder (1965)
recommends that all valuable data be duplicated and
that the originals be stored elsewhere, preferably in a
fireproof safe. The duplicates are then available for
everyday usage. Publications that exceed 150 pages,
and field notes should be permanently bound.
Smaller pamphlets and reprints are commonly stored
in inexpensive, open-backed reprint boxes and
shelves. Dice (1925) strongly recommended that thin
papers be protected by a cover of heavy cardboard.
They may also be stored in filing cabinets, within
cardboard covers, or even in manila envelopes if bet-
ter facilities are lacking. All containers of library
materials should be clearly marked and stored near
specimens to facilitate use. To provide the library
facilities described, Anderson (1973) suggests that
the cost of library maintenance be $0,125 per volume
49
per year. For more information regarding storage
problems and solutions see Storer (1916).
Collection catalogs are arranged numerically. Field
notes are bound chronologically for a given collector
and arranged alphabetically according to the collec-
tor’s surname. Books and reprints are most con-
veniently stored alphabetically by author, or by first
author only (if there is more than one author), and
chronologically if there are several publications by
the same author. Some small, non-research collec-
tions may wish to arrange their libraries by subject
headings rather than by author.
MAPS
Maps and drawings are properly filed flat in
specially designed map cases. Maps may be arranged
alphabetically or geographically. Each drawer should
be properly labeled. Partitions in drawers allow easy
removal and replacement of maps, and provide sub-
divisions, labeling, and limited protection for series
of maps.
PHOTOGRAPHIC ITEMS
Photographic materials require various arrange-
ments, storage facilities, and care, depending
upon their nature. All must be protected from ex-
cessive heat, moisture, and light. Prints, negatives,
color transparencies, lantern slides, motion-picture
films. X-rays, and microfilms should be stored in ap-
propriate containers and labeled. Prints, if stored
vertically, must be mounted on poster board, but this
can be expensive and time-consuming (Vanderbilt,
1966). Mounting can be avoided when the prints are
stored flat. Prints and other photographic surfaces
should not be allowed to come into contact with
papers that contain residual sulphur. Paper for file
usage should have a pH above 5.0 and should not
contain more than 0.0008% residual sulphur (Van-
derbilt, 1966). Negatives can be housed in file boxes
within paper jackets. Each strip should be in a
separate jacket. Color transparencies may be kept in
slide boxes and cabinets of different capacities.
Motion-picture film reels are best stored in dry metal
canisters at low temperatures to avoid distortion and
shrinkage of the film. The old nitrate-based films
require separate storage and periodic inspection
because of their high degree of flammability (Burns
and Root, 1975). Organization of photographic data
may be determined by nature and size of material,
subject, or chronology.
TAPES
A few institutions (for example, MVZ, KU, and
UWZM) maintain collections of recorded mammal
vocalizations and the like. Such tapes may be stored
in original containers and arranged phylogenetically
or by other schemes. They should be housed in ac-
cordance with the instructions of the manufacturer
and protected from heat, dust, and demagnetizing
sources.
MAINTENANCE
Mammal specimens and other collection objects
may suffer damage or deterioration from many sour-
ces, including fire, water, dust, atmospheric
pollutants, extreme temperatures, excessive fluc-
tuations in temperature and atmospheric moisture,
dessication, direct sunlight, careless handling, ac-
cidents, and pests. Collections must be properly
housed and diligently cared for, to insure their con-
tinued existence and integrity. Such maintenance will
cost Recent mammal collections approximately $0.12
per specimen per year for building maintenance alone
(American Society of Mammalogists, 1974). If other
maintenance costs and procedures are included, such
as fumigation, special care of tanned hides,
degreasing specimens, fluid replenishment, specimen
repair, replacement of expendable items, collection
rearrangement, updating taxonomic revisions,
salaries, and other processes, the cost of maintenance
is at least doubled. Therefore, an institution might
expect to pay a minimum of $0.24 per specimen per
year. This expense is based on small specimens.
Larger specimens would, of course, cost more (An-
derson, 1973). Because of the time and expense in-
volved, proper maintenance procedures (Fig. 35)
must be considered essential to collection
management.
Many maintenance problems can be avoided by
preventive measures. For instance, several things can
be done during the initial preparation of the study
specimens that may obviate the necessity of later
maintenance. Avoiding overstuffed bodies and
protruding appendages or pinnae can prevent repairs
of torn or broken parts. Proper cleaning of the skin
can avoid the need for degreasing. In some instances,
it is possible to provide physical support for the
specimen. For example, the use of a stick in
preparing rabbits (Anderson, 1965) offers a means of
support, handling, and protection for the back legs.
50
Fig. 35. Flow chart of common maintenance procedures employed in collections of Recent mammals.
51
At Texas Tech University the same idea has been
used satisfactorily for other specimens that are sub-
ject to tail damage (for example, Sciurus, Vulpes,
Bassariscus, Procyon, and Mephitis). For many
specimens (particularly large specimens) protection
from dermestids, moths, and other pests can be in-
corporated during initial preparation by using
Edolan U, borax (Funk and Sherfey, 1975), arsenic
(Hall, 1962), formalin (TTU), or Durotex
(distributed by Ventron Alfa Products, 8 Congress
Street, Beverly, Massachusetts). These substances act
as effective repellents. The preventive measures
discussed serve as only an example of what can be
done to limit later maintenance. Similar procedures
can be used in almost any situation. The scope of
such procedures is as broad as the ingenuity behind
maintenance operations.
INSURANCE
Every institutional maintenance program should
include a suitable insurance policy to take care of
most major losses and damages that cannot be
prevented through regular maintenance procedures.
The collection and associated facilities and personnel
are subject to a multitude of hazards such as fire, ex-
plosion, severe weather, flood, riot, malicious
mischief, vandalism, theft, accidents to conveyances,
and liability (Lawton, 1966). Because of these hazar-
ds and many others, consideration should be given to
purchasing insurance protection for items such as the
permanent collection, material sent out on loan,
material received on loan, buildings, equipment,
liability of the institution and its staff members, and
any other valuable assets or areas of responsibility of
the institution.
For most property insurance (for example, “Public
Institution Form” policy, “Valuable Papers” policy,
“Fine Arts” policy) the institution should request
“all risk” coverage (Du Bose, 1969). Such coverage
provides protection for all risks of loss or damage
from any external source, with the standard insur-
ance exclusions. Briefly, these exclusions include losses
and/or damages (Keck et al., 1966; Lawton, 1966;
Sanford, personal communication; Vance, 1969)
resulting from:
1) Wear and tear
2) Atmospheric and/or temperature fluctuations
3) Deterioration
4) Animals
5) Inherent vice
6) Unexplained disappearances disclosed upon in-
ventory
7) Specific cases of mechanical damage or break-
down, breakage of fragile items, and superficial
damage
8) Pilferage or theft of insured items which were
left unattended in a vehicle lacking any precaution-
ary or security measures
9) Artificially induced electrical injury or disturb-
ance
10) Acts of war
If protection from any of these exclusions is con-
sidered necessary by the institution, it may be
possible to write a special provision for this purpose.
This procedure will usually require higher premiums
and additional restrictions and controls on the in-
stitution.
Insurance for collections may be divided into two
basic types, depending on the use of the collection. If
the institution sends or receives major. portions of its
holdings on a loan basis, which travel from location
to location (usually for public viewing), insurance
companies categorize such collections as “loan col-
lections.” However, if the institution maintains and
stores its holdings on a constant basis, with the only
exception being occasional restricted loans, such
collections are considered to be “permanent collec-
tions” (Lawton, 1966). Most, if not all. Recent
mammal collections would fall into the category of
permanent collections as far as insurance is con-
cerned.
Insurance for permanent collections is usually a
flat rate and subject to renegotiation when the in-
surance contract is renewed. Because the actual
holdings of the collection may be difficult to ascer-
tain, particularly when the collection is increasing in
size on a regular basis, the insurance policy should
contain a “valuation clause.” This option will allow
full coverage of the collection without any
requirement of knowing the exact quantity and type
of holdings. However, this option does require that
an inventory system be maintained (Keck et al., 1966;
Lawton, 1966). The standard accession and collec-
tion catalogs should serve this purpose. In the event
of a loss, the institution must provide the insurance
company with a description and value of the lost
material.
The practicality of insuring permanent collections
has been questioned (Pfeffer and Uhr, 1974). The
high cost of premiums, particularly for large collec-
tions, and limited budgets tend to discourage in-
surance practices (Pfeffer and Uhr, 1974). Such prac-
tices are further discouraged by the contentions that
52
some items are irreplaceable (for example, rare, pro-
tected, and endangered species), and most other
items cannot be properly evaluated because there is
usually no commercial value involved. If the in-
stitution cannot, or will not, insure the entire per-
manent collection, consideration should be given to
insuring valuable parts of the collection, particularly
if such parts include commercially valuable material
like furs or ivory.
Although Recent mammal collections are
categorized as “permanent collections,” loan
procedures are standard practices. Because loans of
collection materials expose them to the greatest risk
of loss or damage of specimens, and the institution is
unconditionally responsible for material received on
loan, it is imperative to have loan insurance (Lawton,
1966). Loans may be partially insured through the
postal services, but this coverage is restricted to time
in transit and specific geographical regions. Because
loan shipments are not insured at their destination or
in many foreign situations, the importance of loan
insurance is further stressed. A loan insurance policy
should include “wall to wall” or “floating”
coverage. “Wall to wall” coverage will provide in-
surance protection on loans from the time of depar-
ture to the time of return. The “floating” coverage
provides protection for loans in transit under any cir-
cumstance (for example, boat, aircraft, and various
vehicular conveyances), within its territorial limits
(Lawton, 1966).
Insurance for buildings presents some unique
problems. One problem is fluctuation of value
because of depreciation or inflation. In addition, the
cost of insuring such structures can be expensive. In
spite of these factors, it may be possible to provide
adequate protection and coverage at a reduced cost
through the use of coinsurance (Lloyd-Thomas
Company, 1958). The insurance company may have
a provision for a coinsurance policy to encourage the
purchase of more insurance by providing a discount
for more complete coverage. This form of insurance
allows the institution to insure a percentage (for
example, 80 or 90%) of the actual cash value of
the building, with the understanding that it is also
responsible for the difference in cash value, in the
case of loss or damage. Therefore, it is necessary for
the institution to monitor the value fluctuations of
the buildings so that excessive premiums are not paid
if the buildings depreciate. On the other hand, the
owner must not allow the coverage to decrease by in-
flationary increases in the actual value of the
buildings, because such changes result in penalties
for the institution in the case of loss or damage.
Because of the expense and complications of in-
suring buildings, most institutions operated by state
or federal agencies do not have insurance for the
buildings they maintain. For all practical purposes,
the cost of replacing any single structure would be
minimal as compared to the total cost of insurance
required to protect all buildings maintained by the
agency. Therefore, over an extended period of time
the investment of the agency, to correct losses or
damages, is considerably reduced.
In addition to insurance for collections, loans, and
buildings, the institution may need insurance protec-
tion for various other items. Such protection may be
applied to equipment, documentary records, and
staff (hospitalization, life, and pension coverage). In
addition, the institution may need insurance against
specific hazards, such as steam boilers, fire sprinkler
systems, and inherent vice (Du Bose, 1969). The
types of insurance coverage required depend on the
special needs of the institution. For this reason, the
insurance company should be consulted for the most
appropriate protection for a given situation.
One final type of insurance that should not be
overlooked (except perhaps by state and federal
operations that often are protected by statutory im-
munity) is liability coverage for the institution and its
staff members (Du Bose, 1969; Lawton, 1966;
McGrath, 1974; Pfeffer and Uhr, 1974). The most
common liability insurance coverage is for vehicles
(used by the institution) and general liability (Du
Bose, 1969). General liability coverage protects the
institution and staff in the case of legal suit resulting
from claims of negligence (for example, safety of
people and property) (Du Bose, 1969; Lawton, 1966;
Pfeffer and Uhr, 1974). In conjunction with the
liability insurance it may be advisable to include
“personal injury” coverage for cases of false arrest,
slander, or a similar situation (Du Bose, 1969).
Professional liability insurance may also be acquired,
but the benefits of such a policy are questionable
when considering the professions associated with
Recent mammal collections. Because professional
staff and associates of an institution may uncon-
ciously or unwillingly become liable for actions per-
formed in the line of duty (for example, violation of
state or federal laws by personally maintaining and
being responsible for permits that cover the action of
others or receiving improperly marked shipments of
biological specimens) the feasibility of insurance
53
protection should be discussed with the insurance
company. Some institutions do maintain
professional liability insurance for employees for
errors of omission or commission with regard to ac-
tions performed in the line of duty at the institution.
The primary provisions of all liability insurance
policies are payment of legal defense, settlement, and
damages for claims (Lawton, 1966).
In most cases, the total cost of insurance for in-
stitutions (such as museums) is probably very expen-
sive when considering the actual return to the in-
stitution. Although statistics on the subject are essen-
tially non-existent, Pfeffer and Uhr (1974) found in-
surance loss ratios for art museums to be 0.83, 2.98,
and 1.62% of premiums paid for building and im-
provements, permanent loss, and loan collections,
respectively. These ratios reveal that for all premiums
paid, only four % was used for loss adjustments.
In most instances, loss adjustments amount to the
cost of replacement (minus depreciation) or repair of
the items reported in the claim. Normally, insurance
companies expect to repay about 65% of the total
investment (Pfeffer and Uhr, 1974). Under the
present conditions and rates, an institution might ex-
pect to make monthly payments of $0,021 per $100
of permanent collection holdings, and $0,042 per
$100 of loan collection holdings. In other words, if a
Recent mammal collection values its holdings at
$100,000, the institution would have insurance
premiums amounting to approximately $300 per
year. This value is based on coverage for only the
permanent collection, material sent out on loan,
material received on loan, and loans in transit. It
does not include protection for buildings, liability, or
any other coverage the institution may desire.
Because the needs and requirements of various
sizes and types of institutions (for example, private,
local, state, federal, and university) vary con-
siderably, such institutions are considered to be an
“uncontrolled class” as far as insurance is concern-
ed. Therefore, insurance policies, premiums, and
coverage also tend to be variable and entirely subject
to the knowledge, interpretation, and judgment of
the underwriter (Lawton, 1966). This haphazard in-
surance procedure has encouraged the support of
standardized insurance forms (Vance, 1969) and
pooling of insurance policies (Pfeffer and Uhr,
1974). Such practices are appealing because they have
been successfully incorporated for other establish-
ments; they allow the institutions more bargaining
power; favorable insurance items from various in-
stitutions could be consolidated into one policy; basic
insurance requirements (for example, liability, all-
risk, and loan coverage) would become standard-
ized; and the net result of such operations should be
better insurance at a lower cost. Allen and Block
(1974) point out that pooling also attracts less
desirable risks, thus causing rates to increase; causes
monopolistic situations that absorb competing
markets; tends to result in less flexible insurance con-
tracts; and creates situations that allow the insurance
company to increase rates at their own discretion.
Therefore, it is possible for an institution to get a
policy that is equivalent to or better than a policy of-
fered by an insurance pool, particularly if the in-
surance company and institution maintain a good
relationship (Allen and Block, 1974). The institution
can also effectively reduce its insurance rates by
establishing and enforcing professional standards of
institutional operations; improving security;
eliminating fire hazards; installing alarm systems;
conducting regular revaluation and inventory of
holdings; maintaining crowd control; maintaining a
professional and qualified staff (including a conser-
vator); maintaining standard loan procedures
(packing, sending, receiving); differentiating items
that should or should not be insured; accepting loss
limits; accepting deductibles; being selective on items
to be sent out on loan; comparing policies from
various insurance companies; reducing coverage or
using specified loss-limit coverage; providing the in-
surance underwriter with as many facts and details as
possible (Allen and Block, 1974; Lawton, 1966; Pfef-
fer and Uhr, 1974; Vance, 1969); and consolidating
several policies into a single “package policy” (Du
Bose, 1969).
In conclusion, almost anything can be insured for
any amount if someone is willing to pay the price.
Any institution can obtain an insurance policy that
will suit its specific requirements. In the event that an
institution plans to insure any of its holdings, it is
recommended that several insurance companies be
consulted and their proposals compared before any
particular policy is accepted. Such companies should
have the capacity to properly insure institutions
maintaining collections; should offer good “inland
marine” policies (a feature often characteristic of
companies that insure commercial businesses); and
should have a history of qualified, knowledgeable,
and reputable service. Once a company is selected, an
insurance policy that allows internal consistency,
comprehensive coverage, adequate valuation of
losses, simple operation, flexibility, and that is clear
and understandable (Vance, 1969), should be writ-
54
ten. After a policy has been drafted, it may be ad-
visable to ask an experienced attorney to evaluate the
policy before final agreement between the institution
and the insurance company.
SKIN AND SKELETAL MATERIAL
FUMIGATION
Insect pests are perhaps the most serious threat to
mammal collections. In a very short time, dermestid
beetles, clothes moths, and other pests may destroy a
substantial portion of a mammal collection. The
curator and his staff must be constantly alert for
signs of infestation. A routine inspection schedule
should be established. Periodic fumigation of all
storage areas is absolutely essential. All incoming
material must be fumigated immediately because this
isoften the greatest source of harmful pests (Hilde-
brand, 1968).
If dermestids are used to clean skeletal material,
the latter must be fumigated or heated to 100°C im-
mediately following its removal from the colony.
Fumigation is also recommended for specimens
received on or returned from loan, as well as for
specimens stored for a long time in other external
cases (for example, cases used for research projects,
classroom teaching, and the like). After unpacking,
the newly acquired specimens and the packing
material should be placed in an airtight specimen-
storage case or other suitable container set aside for
fumigation (Knudsen, 1966). A quantity of
fumigant, depending upon type, size of chamber,
temperature, and degree of infestation is then in-
troduced into the fumigation chamber. To insure ex-
termination of pests, fumigation should range from
48 hours to two weeks, depending upon the fumigant
used.
Periodic fumigations of the dry-specimen collec-
tion (for example, skin and skeletal material) are
rather standardized, with the exception of the type of
fumigant used. Most collections of Recent mammals
should be treated at least twice a year and more of-
ten, if necessary. The agent, whether of a gaseous,
liquid, or solid type, is placed in each specimen case
for a period of time sufficient to allow exter-
mination. Liquid and gaseous fumigants should be
used only by institutions having adequate air-
exchange systems. During this procedure, conducted
during periods of little or no collection utilization,
cases should remain tightly closed to allow maximum
fumigant effectiveness as well as to minimize health
hazards to staff. Many mammal collections (for
example, ROM, UCONN, and VMKSC) maintain
only a crystalline agent in all cases at all times. Other
collections (for example, USNM, WFBM, PUWL,
MHP, KU, CM, TTU, and UWZM) use a liquid
fumigant several times a year. Still other institutions
(for example, MVZ, UMMZ, MMNH, OSMNH,
and TCWC) combine the two approaches, using a
liquid fumigant for incoming material and for heavy
infestations, and periodically for the entire collec-
tion, while maintaining a crystalline fumigant in each
case at all times.
All fumigating agents are potentially hazardous
and should be handled with care and only by person-
nel familiar with the proper precautionary measures.
All cases containing fumigant should be ap-
propriately marked.
The common collection fumigants, their proper-
ties, effectiveness, directions, and precautions for
their use are discussed below.
CARBON DISULPHIDE (Carbon bisulphide, CS2):
This substance has a molecular weight of 76.13, a
boiling point of 46.3°C (115°F), and ignites spon-
taneously at about 100°C (212°F) (Monro, 1961).
Fumigant is evolved by evaporation of the liquid.
Odor is sweetish when pure. Added impurities, for
example, sulphur dioxide (SO2), give the charac-
teristic unpleasant odors. Carbon disulphide tends to
burn or explode at relatively low temperatures. Car-
bon disulphide’s high degree of flammability and
harmful effects should preclude its use in collections.
It is extremely toxic, producing a narcotic effect in
high concentrations and may even cause death. Ab-
sorption may take place through the skin at high con-
centrations, and prolonged contact with the liquid or
vapors may result in severe burns (Monro, 1961).
Because the vapors are heavier than air, shallow con-
tainers containing approximately 15 cubic cen-
timeters (cc) of fumigant for standard-size museum
cases should be placed in a tray near the top of each
case. According to Storer (1931) 592 cc (567 grams)
per 254 cubic meters (1000 cubic feet) of space is a
safe minimum for collection usage. Various liquid
fumigants may also be dispensed onto absorbent
material such as cotton, which has been attached to
the inside of storage case doors. Some cases are fitted
with a special receptacle for fumigants on their
doors. Carbon disulphide was perhaps the most
frequently used fumigant in mammal collections (for
example, MVZ, WFBM, MHP, KU, OSMNH, and
TCWC). This liquid fumigant is seldom used alone
but rather in mixture with fire retardant additives
55
such as carbon tetrachloride. In mixture with carbon
tetrachloride, carbon disulphide is a successful
fumigant utilized by some institutions (for example,
TTU). These formulas usually consist of 80% carbon
tetrachloride and 20% carbon disulphide, together
with small amounts of sulphur dioxide and other fire-
inhibiting additives. These mixtures are relatively
stable and do not constitute as great a fire hazard
(Monro, 1961). It should be noted that sulphur
dioxide, as an atmospheric pollutant, is deleterious to
collections (see storage).
ETHYLENE DlCHLORiDE (CH2CI-CH2CI): This
has a molecular weight of 98.97 and a boiling point
of 83.5°C (182°F). Fumigant is evolved by
evaporation of the liquid. Odor is reminiscent of
chloroform (Monro, 1961). This liquid is almost
always mixed with carbon tetrachloride for use as a
fumigant because, like CS2, it is highly flammable in
pure form. Mixtures used by collections (for exam-
ple, USNM, UMMZ, OSMNH, CM, and UWZM)
usually consist of 75% ethylene dichloride and 25%
carbon tetrachloride by volume. One mixture,
marketed under the trade name Dowfume 75, has a
70% and 30% composition of ethylene dichloride
and carbon tetrachloride, respectively. Dizziness may
result from exposure to fumes and permanent
damage may be inflicted by sustained exposure to
very high concentrations. Schantz (1949) reported on
the successful use of an ethylene dichloride-carbon
tetrachloride mixture. Application procedures are the
same as those for carbon disulphide-carbon
tetrachloride mixtures. Its action is reportedly more
delayed than pure CS2 but it is less flammable and
just as satisfactory (Schantz, 1949). At the National
Museum of Natural History Dowfume-75 is
pressurized inside Navy shell canisters and then
sprayed into vessels within each storage case. Both
gloves and masks (see precautions below) are worn
during the operation, which is performed twice
yearly (Setzer, personal communication). It is
recommended that fumigation with Dowfume-75 be
at least 96 hours in duration, using a minimum of 50
cc for each 0.34 cubic meters (12 cubic feet). After
fumigation is completed, the cases should be opened.
Utilization of the collection area can be resumed af-
ter the concentration of fumigant in the air is below
ten parts per million. This ratio can be measured by a
Gas-Tech Model 1230 Halide Detector (Anon.,
1976). Dowfume-75 is soluble in fats and oils, and
therefore has the potential to damage prepared skins
if contact occurs. It may also have harmful effects on
plastic vials.
The Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act
of 1972, effective as of October 1977, states that,
”. . .it shall be unlawful for any person in any
State to distribute, sell, offer for sale, hold for
sale, ship, deliver for shipment, or receive and
(having so received) deliver or offer to deliver, to
any person ... to use any registered pesticide in a
manner inconsistent with its labeling.” (Public
Law 92-516 Sec. 12)
This law prohibits the use of any fumigant not
properly labeled in the affirmative as being safe for
collection use. Dowfume-75 is the only current
fumigant with labeling allowing legal use for in-
stitutional collections.
PARADICHLOROBENZENE (PDB, C6H4CI2): This
has a molecular weight of 147.01 and a melting point
of 53°C (127. 4°F). Paradichlorobenzene is a
crystalline fumigant that sublimes to give off vapors.
It is used as a ‘‘constant fumigant” by many collec-
tions of Recent mammals (for example, ROM,
UCONN, UMMZ, VMKSC, MVZ, OSMNH, and
TCWC). The fumes are not flammable as ordinarily
used. According to Cotton (1956) “the vapors are
not considered to be harmful to man.” It is ad-
visable, however, not to remain exposed to a high
concentration of vapor for long periods of time.
Jackson (1926) described the effects of PDB upon
Dennestes and tenioid (clothes) moths. Sufficient
quantities in continuous use will keep pests from en-
tering storage cases and will prevent their feeding
when present. At higher concentrations, insects are
killed, as reported by Dudley and Wilkinson (1968)
for both adult and larval tenioid moths.
Paradichlorobenzene is an effective repellent of in-
sects when used on a continuous basis in proper
amounts. The crystals may be placed in small cloth
bags or paper cups if case doors are not equipped
with receptacles. If too much PDB is placed in a case,
supersaturation of the air occurs with resultant
recrystalization on the case, holding trays, or even on
the specimens themselves. In addition, plastic vials
may become opaque or even “dissolve.” PDB will
react with Styrofoam and hence should not be used in
connection with that synthetic, e.g., in shipping
crates. Polyethylene foam is not affected in this way.
Paradichlorobenzene may also retard mold for-
mation in humid climates (Van Gelder, 1965). It ap-
parently does not alter pelage color unless direct con-
tact is made. Because its volatilization rate is much
slower than that of liquid fumigants, it is more useful
56
as a repellent than as a pesticide except when used in
the highest concentrations. The crystals, however,
are easier and safer to dispense than the liquid agen-
ts.
NAPHTHALENE (CioHs): This has a molecular
weight of 128.06 and a melting point of 80.1°C
(176°F) (Monro, 1961). Although naphtalene is slow
to act, its vapor is quite toxic to insects (Monro,
1961). It is more economical to use than PDB
because smaller dosages are required. Long (1970)
recommends using 0.45 kilograms (1 pound) for each
2.83 cubic meters (100 cubic feet) of space. Its use in
loan shipments is recommended. Naphthalene is also
applied in the form of crystals or flakes. It is not as
volatile as PDB, but is effective in tightly sealed con-
tainers, a prerequisite for the successful use of any
solid fumigant.
DDVP (2,2 dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate.
Shell No-Pest Strip, Vapona): This moderately
volatile insecticide evolves vapors that are highly
toxic. It is currently in use (for example, FSM and
UPS) as a collection fumigant much in the same
manner as PDB. The solid stick contains 20% DDVP
and related compounds. It is divided into appropriate
sized pieces for use in specimen storage cases. Vapors
are released at a uniform rate over a period of several
months (Monro, 1961). Satisfactory results of exten-
ded use of DDVP has been reported (for example,
UPS). However, Setzer related the unsuccessful use
of a full strip of the fumigant within a small storage
case containing bird specimens. Dermestid beetles
were still alive two weeks following treatment. Setzer
doubts its effectiveness against coleopterans. DDVP
does not irritate mucous membranes and so is less ob-
jectionable to work with than other agents, but
prolonged exposure to the vapors and contact with
the skin should be avoided.
Other fumigants of various types that have been or
are still in use by various institutions include Car-
boxide (for example, CM) for fumigating fur vaults,
DDT (Anderson, 1965), and ethyl acetate-carbon
tetrachloride (Jackson, 1926).
Fumigants are known to act on an insect, whether
it is in the larval, pupal, or adult stage, by entering
the respiratory system via the spiracles. Fumigants
apparently penetrate the chorion of the egg by dif-
fusion, or perhaps through specialized “respiratory
channels.” The effectiveness of a given fumigant is in
part influenced by the respiratory rate of the insect,
which in turn is directly affected by the ambient tem-
perature. The importance of fumigant diffusion
through the external surfaces of insects is not well
understood (Monro, 1961).
Temperature is the single most important factor
determining fumigant effectiveness. Less fumigant is
required at higher temperatures. Temperatures of
21° to 24°C (70° to 75°F) seem to be optimal. At
lower temperatures more gas is absorbed by the
material being fumigated, leaving less available to
kill the pests.
Precautions that should be taken while fumigating:
1) Always follow the directions for use and precau-
tions listed on the fumigant container label
2) No person should work alone, no matter how
small the job
3) Respirators (gas masks) fitted with the appro-
priate filter-type canister, and rubber gloves
should be worn by fumigating personnel
4) Smoking and other sources of ignition must be
strictly forbidden during fumigation
5) A first-aid kit with antidotes and instructions
for treatment in case of poisoning should be avail-
able
6) Be sure that the fumigant being used does not
have adverse effects on specimens, equipment, or
any other facilities that will be in contact with the
fumigant
7) Be sure that all procedures used in fumigating
comply with the Occupational Safety and Health
Act of 1970, to avoid liability suits (Anon., 1976).
TANNED HIDES
A substantial portion of a collection’s holdings
may be in the form of tanned hides. Periodic in-
spection is necessary because they often require
oiling to ensure that they will remain supple and
pliable, and so resist tearing. The effects of
dessication may be thus avoided. A solution of
sulphonated neatsfoot oil and warm water in equal
proportions should be applied to the “flesh side” of
the hide (Moyer, 1953).
DEGREASING
Fatty tissues should be thoroughly removed from
skins at the time of preparation. If this is not done,
grease may subsequently ooze from the specimen by
capillary action. These natural oils and constituent
fatty acids, when in overabundance, will oxidize
and burn the skin fibers of a prepared specimen.
The weakened skin fibers then tear easily. In ad-
dition, skeletal material may exude grease for long
periods of time if not properly handled during
57
processing. This material will discolor, give off
disagreeabe odors, readily collect dust, attract pests,
and generally become undesirable to handle. Main-
tenance of such specimens may involve various
degreasing methods more adequately described
elsewhere (Anderson, 1965; Fleming, 1926; Hudson,
1935; Sherman, 1925; Sommer and Anderson,
1974). These processes normally involve the immer-
sion of the specimen in a grease solvent for a given
length of time and subsequent removal of the excess
solvent from the specimen with absorbent material.
This is followed by air drying. Carbon tetrachloride
is the most commonly used grease solvent because
of its excellent and quick results, and non-
flammability. However, the toxicity of this solvent
requires good ventilation and safety precautions.
White gasoline is also a good grease solvent, but its
flammability makes it less desirable for use (Knud-
sen, 1972). A new product, K-2 spray powder,
provides a quick, nonharmful, and effective method
for degreasing small and delicate specimens.
However, this product is expensive and does not
remove deep or fixed grease (UPS). Dirty skeletal
specimens may be washed in warm water and
detergent, rinsed with fresh water, and dried. They
may be bleached with a 4‘7o solution of hydrogen
peroxide (Sommer and Anderson, 1974).
When treating skins with solvents, the possibility
of changes in pelage color must always be taken into
consideration. The extent of color changes, if any,
generally depends upon the length of time the
specimen remains in the fluid (Fleming, 1926). If a
skin has been treated, it is suggested that such treat-
ments be noted on the skin tag (UWZM).
SPECIMEN REFURBISHING AND REPAIR
Occasionally, mammal specimens require refur-
bishing or repair. A specimen’s research value may
be greatly enhanced by such attention. On the other
hand, repair attempts by unskilled workers may
result in still greater damage to a specimen.
Commonly incurred damages to mammal
specimens include fading of pelage color (“foxing”),
loosening and loss of teeth, tearing of prepared skins,
dessication, accumulation of foreign materials (for
example, dust, soot, and grease), and damage by
pests (for example, insects and rodents). Pelage
fading of study skins and fluid-preserved materials,
and destruction caused by insects are irreversible. In
cases of insect damage, a falling-hair condition may
be inhibited to some extent by the use of commercial
hairspray.
Torn study skins and tanned hides are often
repairable. Separated appendages can often be reat-
tached with the use of certain impervious liquid
adhesives (for example, Duco Cement), when done
carefully. A properly applied brace will afford sup-
port during the drying process. Merely securing the
torn appendage to the specimen with string may be
satisfactory when gluing is not possible. Small parts
(for example, bat nose leafs) might be placed in an
envelope or vial. Tanned hides that have been torn
can usually be sewn, or a leather or cloth (for exam-
ple, canvas, burlap, etc.) patch may be applied to the
flesh side of the skin with a liquid adhesive to prevent
further tearing of the hide.
Accumulated dust can often be removed from
specimens by compressed air if the dust is not held by
grease on the skin. Warm hardwood sawdust, corn-
meal, or bran may be employed to remove dirt and
grease from skins. After working the material into
the hair, it may be removed by the use of compressed
air or a vacuum cleaner blower attachment (Grantz,
1969). If a skin is still greasy, it is possible to clean it
by soaking the entire specimen in naphtha or white
gasoline for about 30 minutes. Following this
procedure, the specimen should be brushed with
sawdust or cornmeal, and allowed to dry.
Loosening of teeth and fracturing of skeletal
material, constant problems in collections of Recent
mammals, often result from moisture loss from the
bones. This can be partially prevented by coating
bones with a sealer. Care should be taken to avoid
using sealers in quantities that would affect the
dimensions of the bone. If damage of skeletal
material has occurred, repairs can be made through
the use of liquid adhesives. The pure adhesive (for
example, Duco Cement) can often be thinned with
appropriate liquids (for example, acetone) to the
desired consistency and applied with a brush. Care
should be taken to keep adhesives off the crowns of
the teeth. Ambroid Cement, as recommended by
Anderson (1965), may be dabbed on a wisp of cotton
which is then wrapped around the roots of the tooth
before its replacement into the alveolus. This
adhesive is reputed to have many uses, depending
upon the amount of solvent mixed with it, and has
the distinction of not contracting with the elapse of
time as do some other adhesives. Applied in a thin
coat, it successfully inhibits fracturing and holds
together already-cracked osteological material.
Although discoloration may result when too thick, it
can be removed easily with acetone (Anderson,
58
1965). Loose teeth may also be reset, at least tem-
porarily, with the use of plasticine, as described by
Anderson (1965). The teeth are held effectively and
may be removed subsequently for examination.
FLUID-PRESERVED MATERIAL
A substantial portion of the institution’s holdings
are normally stored in preservatives such as alcohol,
embalming fluid, buffered formalin, glycerin, and
others. Accordingly, a proportionate amount of time
must be spent in maintaining these specimens in good
condition.
FLUIDS
Fluid levels must be adequate to ensure that the
specimens are covered by the preservative. A regular
inspection schedule should be established. During
such inspections, perhaps three times annually, each
vessel should be examined for loss of preservative.
When the addition of fluid is required, concen-
trations of the remaining fluid should first be ascer-
tained using an alcoholometer or alcohol
hydrometer. A stronger additive solution (different
types of preservative should not be mixed) may be
required to re-establish the original concentration. A
table of dilution factors for alcohol is given by
Wagstaffe and Fidler (1955). Jars and other storage
vessels should be filled as close to the brim as possible
to make any subsequent loss of fluid more readily
discernible.
Maintenance of the fluid-preserved holdings often
involves replacement of the storage vessel or part
thereof. Metal lids rust, some plastic lids crack or
loosen, glass jars and earthenware crocks oc-
casionally break, and cap liners and rubber gaskets
require replacement (Palmer, 1974). Ground-glass
jars require periodic replenishment of the grease seal
between lid and jar. Crocks, whose exterior glaze
eventually deteriorates and allows seeping of preser-
vative (Zweifel, 1966), also require special main-
tenance. Levi (1966) recommends Dow silicone
grease rather than petroleum jelly as a seal.
Numerous attempts have been made to overcome
the fluid evaporation problem. Isopropyl alcohol
seems to evaporate more slowly than ethyl alcohol
(Zweifel, 1966). Use of Marathon parafilm M sheets
in conjunction with metal Ball jar lids and others has
been somewhat successful (Zweifel, 1966) but
replacement of the film liner is necessary each time a
jar is opened. Levi (1966) cites the use of 3M tape
No. 472 to create a better seal between lid and jar.
Sealed jars may also be dipped in Uniroyal Industrial
Adhesive No. 6273 to create a better seal (Levi,
1966). Such treatment must be repeated, however,
each time a vessel is opened.
Storage of specimens in a smaller receptacle within
a larger one is hardly feasible with mammal speci-
mens. Dessication problems can be virtually
eliminated by the use of good quality storage vessels
and periodic and thorough inspection.
REFURBISHING AND REPAIR OF
ALCOHOLIC MATERIAL
Mummified specimens may sometimes be
rehydrated by passing through a graded series of
alcohols to water. A 1% solution of trisodium
phosphate in water has been used to recondition in-
vertebrates (Levi, 1966). Reconstitution of dried-
fish specimens in a weak solution of potassium
hydroxide was suggested by Smith (1965).
Propylene glycol has been found useful in
rehydrating mummified specimens. For rehydrating
skin and other tissues, a diluted laboratory aerosol
solution (Dowler and Genoways, 1976) is recom-
mended (USNM).
Skulls are often removed from fluid-preserved
specimens in the course of identification. Cotton
should be inserted in the head skin of the specimen to
simulate the original size and shape of the head. A
few carefully placed stitches to close the lips will
prevent subsequent tearing of the head and facial
features.
MISCELLANEOUS MAINTENANCE
In addition, routine maintenance includes the
repair and replacement of a great many objects. Vials
and vial caps, boxes for skeletal material, pasteboard
trays, glass jars, lids, and case drawers are among the
numerous items that require such periodic attention.
UPDATING RECORDS
It has been stated that the data associated with a
specimen are at least as valuable as the specimen it-
self (American Society of Mammalogists, 1974; Van
Gelder, 1965). Likewise, availability determines a
specimen’s real value. A specimen that is unavailable
for any reason is for all practical purposes non-
existent.
The curator and his staff must be aware of the
taxonomic developments as documented in the scien-
tific literature. A genuine effort must be made to in-
dicate such changes in taxonomy on the specimens of
the group affected, whether such revisions were
gained through examination of the literature, direct
59
Taxonomy and
Fig. 36. Chart of general types of utilization of Recent mammal collections.
examination of the material by a specialist in a cer-
tain group, or through institutional research efforts.
The amount of time spent in such endeavors may be
considerable, especially in the larger collections
where specimen numbers and overburdened staffs
may not allow quick attention. Of necessity, this up-
dating may be of low priority in some collections.
Updating collection records may involve
taxonomic changes due to misidentification or
revision, changes of availability, or any other
necessary addition or change of pertinent infor-
mation. When updating, annotations should be made
on all records, such as skin tags, labels for skeletal
material, drawer and case labels, collection catalogs,
card files, and computer records. The name of the
reviser and the year of the revision may be entered in
the catalogs, or on specimen labels, so that sub-
sequent investigators will be able to refer to the
original literature. Any change in the availability of a
specimen, such as loss, exchange, or sale should be
indicated in the catalog as well. A red pencil is often
used for indicating permanent changes.
60
■" — ^ '
COLLECTIONS OF RECENT MAMMALS, TEXAS TECH
SLIP FOR WITHDRAWAL OF SPECIMEN (S) FROM THE COLLECTION
fsjQ5_ ^ " 3s j * '^£^oMYSc,iJS
J^c.mia.»us : ¥-q T>fZ- 2>^y/i> SaAA^ieJ ly^jiejcBs
Fig. 37. Slip for withdrawal of specimens from the collection. This slip is
left in the place of specimens removed from the collection. Original color
of slip was blue, but any conspicuous color will suffice. Original size of
slip was 23 by 89 millimeters.
UTILIZATION
Genoways et al. (1976) have undertaken a search to
identify mammalian systematists and other users of
collections of Recent mammals. These collections, as
well as the biology libraries associated with them,
receive usage from a great variety of sources and for
a great many endeavors (Irwin et al., 1973; Con-
ference of Directors of Systematic Collections, 1971).
Research, reference, education, and exhibition are
among the major uses (Fig. 36).
INTERNAL USAGE
STAFF AND VISITOR USAGE
The primary function of most collections of
Recent mammals is one of research and documen-
tation. The prudent and appropriate use of un-
cataloged specimens in other endeavors (for example,
education) should not, however, be underestimated.
Research specimens should always be handled with
due respect, in a careful, conscientious manner. Per-
sons not trained to appreciate specimen value or who
are otherwise unfamiliar with proper procedures
should refrain from handling research material.
Specimens should never be picked up by a single ap-
pendage; in fact, they should be handled as in-
frequently as possible. It is good practice to return
specimens to their appropriate storage areas at times
when they are not being examined or curated. At the
very least, specimens ought to be shielded from dust
and light in some manner while outside of the cases.
It may be advisable to have all specimens removed
and reinstalled by one individual who is responsible
for their whereabouts. It is standard procedure with
most collections to leave a withdrawal slip with per-
tinent information each time a specimen is removed
from its place of storage (Fig. 37). The Mammalogy
Department of The University of Kansas asks that
specimens removed from a case be placed on a
“holding cart” when ready for reinstallation, rather
than returned directly and perhaps improperly. This
is a wise procedure, staff size permitting. Most other
institutions (for example, USNM, UMMZ, AMNH, |
TTU, and UPS) have written regulations regarding
use, as well as other aspects of curation, to the
benefit of staff and visitors alike. Such guidelines
may include directions as to the availability, location,
and use of facilities and equipment, as well as for '
proper specimen removal, handling, and
replacement. The manual might also include infor-
mation regarding institutional hours, policies for key
acquisition, property passes, and floor plans.
Regulations pertaining to the use of type specimens
and loan procedures are likewise usually included in
such a manual.
Researchers are urged to examine specimens at the
institutions where they are housed. Outside in-
vestigators should follow proper procedures in
making such visits. They should make contact with
the person in charge, relating the purpose, time, and
length of the planned visit. Through this courtesy,
researchers’ needs for equipment and staff assist-
ance, if any, may best be met. The visitor may be
requested to reciprocate by helping to curate the taxa
in question through his investigations. Most collec-
tions maintain guest registers that allow for easy
compilation of collection use for annual reports,
grant requests, and the like.
INTRA-INSTITUTIONAL LOANS
Specimens loaned to various divisions or depart-
THE MUSEUM OF TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF MAMMALOGY
INTRACAMPUS LOAN
Requested by
Signature Full-time Faculty/Staff Member
Dat e 1 March 1975
To be used by
Purpose
JiX- Robert L. Packard
Fyami nat 1 on for ph Q t Q r ap h i c purposes
Specimens will be kept at
Date to be returned
Personal storage facilities of Packard in
Room 42 i of Biology Buildirtg
15 March 1975
Authorized by
Packaged by _
Date 2 Mar . 19 75
Date 2 Mar . 19 75
Description of material
Five skins and skulls of male Peromys cus pectoral is 1 ace i anus
from Texas: Brewster County, as follows:
TTU
22962-18.6
mi .
N .
, 1.2
mi .
E
M
22963-18.5
mi .
N .
, 1.3
m i .
E
II
22964- "
t f
II
22970-18.0
mi .
N .
, 3.0
mi .
E
II
22971-17.3
mi .
N .
, 0.6
mi .
E
Marathon-mandible separated
Marathon -0 . K .
Tf _ t1
Marathon -skin has torn left ear
M arath on -C . K .
Loan picked up by
Loan received by
Loan checked by
Date
3
Mar .
1975
Date
15
Mar .
1975
Date
15
Mar .
1975
Date
15
Mar .
1975
Material found in satisfactory (j(), unsatisfactory ( ) condition
Fig. 38. Intracampus loan form used at Texas Tech University. Original size was 280 by 217 millimeters.
62
ments within a single institution are sometimes han-
dled in a rather casual manner. It is necessary,
especially in large institutions, to keep some record
of these transactions to avoid misunderstandings and
possible loss (Fig. 38). Such procedures help control
and reemphasize the functions and standards of the
collection, and therefore will encourage proper han-
dling and care of specimens on loan to local users.
EXTERNAL USAGE
The processing of loan requests is among routine
procedures at most collections with sizable holdings.
Because the institution is prepared to take on the
responsibility of loans, such material is always
loaned to the institution instead of to the individual.
Loan shipments are usually sent to any qualified
student or professional upon request. Holotypes
should never leave their institutions and so are never
loaned (American Society of Mammalogists, 1974).
Some institutions (for example, USNM) wisely prefer
that type materials be examined in the same room in
which they are housed. It is poor policy to send all
holdings of a given taxa or generally more than 50
specimens at one time. Both lender and borrower
have obligations to the specimens, as discussed
below. Specimen loans are normally arranged for a
six-month period among most institutions, with
renewal usually granted upon request. Borrowers are
urged to return specimens promptly following exami-
nation. Regulations regarding loan material have,
unfortunately, often not been strictly enforced.
Few collections levy fees for the use of research
material to bona fide professionals. The borrower
may be assessed a fee for labor costs (for example,
UMMZ) when requests involve large numbers of
specimens. Some museums levy consultation fees on
profit-making concerns for the use of collections and
libraries. The Royal Ontario Museum charges a
variable fee of approximaely $25.00 per skin or
mount for such short-term loans.
Specimens received on loan must be given diligent
care. Specimens should not be physically altered in
any way, such as removing skulls from alcoholic
specimens, unless prior consent to such alterations
has been received from the lender. It is wise to store
fluid-preserved specimens in the same fluid in which
they were originally maintained. A note to that effect
might be included on the invoice. Damage incurred
during shipment must be reported to the lender and
the carrier immediately (Long, 1970).
A loan transaction (Fig. 39) usually begins with a
written request for specimens. The request should in-
clude the reason for the request, the nature and num-
ber of specimens desired, the length of time for
which the material is required, and any pertinent
additional information. A reply letter approving or
disapproving the request is then sent to the potential
borrower. If the loan is approved it will include in-
formation as to when the material will be forwarded.
Following assembly of the requested specimens, an
invoice (Fig. 40) should be completed in
quadruplicate and include the lender’s and
borrower’s names and addresses, authorizing
signatures, packer’s initials, shipping date, shipping
cost, carrier’s name, amount of insurance, and a
detailed description of the nature and condition of
the contents. The original is retained by the lending
institution. The borrower receives a second and a
third copy, maintaining one for their records and
returning the other signed. The borrower indicates
any damage to the specimens in transit on the signed
copy that is returned. For this reason, loan material
should be thoroughly examined with regard to con-
dition upon receipt. A fourth copy should be at-
tached to the outside of the crate in an envelope in
accordance with the Lacey Act of 1903 and the
Department of Interior regulation concerning “Im-
port, Export, and Interstate Transportation of
Wildlife.’’ The latter is a more concise form of the
Lacey Act and states,
“. . . no person shall ship, transport, carry, bring
or convey any wildlife in interstate or foreign com-
merce unless the package or container in which
such wildlife is contained has the name and ad-
dress of the shipper and the consignee and an accu-
rate statement of the contents by species and num-
bers of each species of wildlife therein contained
clearly and conspicuously marked on the outside
thereof.’’ (CFR 50.14)
Address labels should be placed inside and on the
outside of the package. Such labels should indicate
the contents as being, “SCIENTIFIC SPECIMENS;
NO ENDANGERED SPECIES; NO COMMER-
CIAL VALUE” (Genoways and Choate, 1976) (Fig.
41). The post office or latest edition of the Postal
Service Manual (available from the United States
Government Printing Office), should be consulted
regarding size and weight limitations or other
regulations. Similar procedures should be followed
when using private carriers (for example. United
Parcel Service).
Packing costs and one-way shipping and insurance
Letter notifying sending of shipment
63
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Card acknowledging return of shipment
64
ounicATi The Museum
COLLECTION of MAMMALS
TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY
LUBBOCK. TEXAS 79409
INVOICE OF SPECIMENS
To:
Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection
Department of Wildlife and Date shipped:.
Fisheries Sciences
Texas A 8f M University
College Station, Texas
(ATTN.; Dr. David J. Schmidly)
Purpose:
Loan at .your request
Shipped via:.
Checked by:_
Approved by: .
1 April 1Q75
Prepaid Parcel Post
4I.
Number, description, & condition of specimens:
10 skins and skulls of Peromyscus pectoralis laceianus
from Texas; Brewster County, as follows:
Males:
TTU
22962 - 18.6
mi. N. ,
1 .2
mi. E. Marathon-mandible
separated
tt
22963 - 18.5
mi. N. ,
1.3
mi. E. Marathon-0. K.
tt
22964 - "
II
" -O.K.
ft
22970 - 18.0
mi. N. ,
3.0
mi. E. Marathon-skin has
torn left ear
fi
22971 - 17.3
mi. N. ,
0.6
mi. E. Marathon-0. K.
Females:
TTU
22961 -
18.6
mi. N. ,
1.2 mi .
E. Marathon-0. K.
It
22965 -
18.5
mi. N. ,
1.3 mi.
E. Marathon-nasals broken anteriorly
II
22966 -
It
II
" -skin without tail
II
22967 -
II
11
" -O.K.
It
22968 -
II
It
" -O.K.
NO ENDANGERED SPECIES; NO COMMERCIAL VALUE
UPON RECEIPT OF SPECIMENS RETURN
A SIGNED COPY (YELLOW) OF THE
INVOICE. PLEASE REPORT ANY
SPECIMEN DAMAGE IMMEDIATELY.
Received:
.192il
Conc^ion: GmS\
iLjl
7
IGNED
Fig. 40. Form used for external loans at Texas Tech University. This form is completed in triplicate. One copy is retained by the
loaner, and two copies are sent to the borrower. The borrower signs and returns one copy, and retains one copy for the collection
files. Original size was 280 by 217 millimeters.
65
Collection of Mammals
The Museum ot
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, Texas 79409
TO:
Texas Cooperative Wildlife
Collection
Department of Wildlife and
Fisheries Sciences
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas 77843
ATTN. :
Dr, David J. Schmidly
MAIL
X Insured 150.
Special 4th Class
Rate
EXPRESS
CONTENTS: SCIENTIFIC
SPECIMENS; NO ENDANGERED
Prepaid
SPECIES; NO COMMERCIAL VALUE
Collect
POSTMASTER: This parcel may
be opened for postal inspection
Value
if necessary. Return requested .
( see sealed invoice )
Fig. 41. Label used for mailing a loan of scientific specimens of mammals. Note that the loan is made to an
institution and not an individual. Original size of label was 102 by 141 millimeters.
costs are usually paid by the lending institution. The
borrower, of course, pays these expenses when retur-
ning the material. Shipments valued above $200.00
(the maximum allowable postal insurance per con-
tainer) should be sent registered mail, private carrier,
or in several smaller containers, if possible. If a
shipment is sent as registered mail, it can be insured
for over $200.00 and such shipments have greater
security. The carrier should be notified immediately
if insured shipments are damaged enroute. In-
stitutions (for example, ROM, MHP, VMKSC, and
TTU) normally insure individual specimens for at
least $5.00. This should probably be a base figure,
whereas very valuable specimens should probably not
be loaned at all. Size of shipment, destination, num-
ber of specimens, and nature of the specimens are
factors to be considered for insurance purposes. If a
shipment is sent to a country outside of the United
States, the Postal Service should be consulted about
necessary forms and differences in insuring, wrap-
ping, and labeling procedures. In addition, state and
federal regulations of the United States should be
considered and followed for all exported and impor-
ted shipments. Generally, such shipments require ap-
propriate permits, federal inspection, and ap-
propriate forms (for example. Form 3-177 — Declara-
tion for Importation of Wildlife; and Form 7523 —
Entry and Manifest of Merchandise Free of Duty,
Carrier’s Certificate and Release — Figs. 42 and 43,
respectively). For more detail, see Genoways and
Choate (1976) or the Federal Register (for example,
CFR 50.10, 50.13, 50.14, 50.17, 50.18, and 50.216).
Specimens must be packed in such a manner as to
protect them from shock and excessive heat or
moisture. Packing facilities should ideally be located
near collection storage areas. Crates should be of
wood, with a wooden lid that is screwed rather than
nailed in place (Keck, 1970). Packing of research
specimens is of necessity a rather slow process. Cot-
ton, paper, excelsior, straw, and other materials have
classically been utilized for this purpose. Today, a
host of excellent, industrial synthetic packing
materials (for example, polyethylene foam) is
available (Fall, 1965; Long, 1970). Packing materials
should be non-abrasive, non-staining, non-linting,
strong, lightweight, resilient, and water, mold, and
flame resistant (Fall, 1965).
66
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR orm Approved
Fish and Wildlife Service bureau No, 42-R1476
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
Washington, D. C. 20240
’ION FOR IMPORTATION OF WILDLIFE
(50 CFR 13. 12)
INSTRUCTIONS: Submit original and copy to Collector of Customs, at the port of entry where inspection occurs.
Name of Importer
Address (Street, city , state, and ziD code)
Name of Broker (If any)
Address (Street, city, state, and zip code)
Name of Consignor
Address (Street, city, state, and zip code)
List below by
NUMBER
species, giving number imported with common a nc
COMMON NAME
scientific names of each. Continue on reverse side, if necessary
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Signature of Importer or Broker
Date submitted
CUSTOMS OFFICER
Port of Entry
Signature
Date
Form 3-177
(August 1965)
Bureau of Customs:
Mail originals at the end of the month to: Director, Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife, United States Department of the Interior,
Washington, D. C. 20240 'i'’'’
DECLARAT
Fig. 42. U.S. Department of the Interior Form 3-177 — Declaration for Importation of Wildlife. This form must be
completed at least in duplicate with each importation or exportation of scientific specimens of mammals.
67
DEI'ARTMENT OF THE TREASURY
U. S. CUSTOMS SERVICE
6.1, 8.61a, C.K.; 6.1, 8.51a C.M.
ENTRY AND MANIFEST OF MERCHANDISE FREE OF DUTY.
CARRIER’S CERTIFICATE AND RELEASE
PREPARE
IN DUPLICATE
No.
Tlie uiRicrsig.'ied, as the importer of merchandise described below, which arrived at the port or station identified, hereby
claims free entry therefor under the provisions of the applicable law indicated.
DISTRICT NO.
PORT OR STATION
DATE
VESSEL OR OTHER CONVEYANCE
ARRrVALDATE
COUNTRY OF EXPORTATION
MARKS AND NUMBERS
DESCRIPTION AND QUANTITY OF MERCHANDISE
VALUE
T.S.U.S. I’reM OR P.L. NO
IMPORTER !N4mt Addfmf
AGENTS SiCNATVRE
INSPECTED AND PASSED PREI OP DLOT BY:
signature
CARRIER’S CERTIFICATE AND RELEASE ORDER
The undersigned carrier, to whom or upon whose order the articles described above must be released, hereby certifies
that the person or firm named above as the importer is the owner or consignee of such articles within the purview of
section 484 (h). Tariff Act of 1930. In accordance with the provisions of section 484 0). Tariff Act of 1930, authority
is hereby given to release the articles to such consignee.
CARRIER
AGENTS signature
Duplicate copy shall be sent weekly on Friday to the Import Statistics Section, Foreign Trade Division, Bureau of the Census, Waihiirgton, D.C. 20233
(This form may be printed by private parties provided it conforms to official form in size,
wording, arrangement, and quality and color of paper.)
GPO 95J-573
Customs Form 7323 (11-2-73)
Form Approved
O.M.B. No. 4S-R0461
Fig. 43. U.S. Customs Form 7523 — Entry and Manifest of Merchandise Free of Duty, Carrier’s Certificate and Release. This
must be completed at least in duplicate when importing scientific specimens.
68
Skulls and skeletal material must be protected
from breakage. Containers (for example, vials and
boxes) for skeletal material must be padded inside to
prevent damage to the contents. Padding material
may be tissue paper or cotton. However, cotton is
less desirable because skeletal parts may become en-
tangled or lost in such material. Containers for
skeletal material, particularly vials, should be in-
dividually wrapped in paper to help prevent breakage
and loss or mixing of skeletal material if breakage
occurs. Hoffmeister (1973) suggests using Styrofoam
blocks for protecting vials. In the case of large skulls,
resilient material should be placed between teeth to
prevent chipping. Specimens must not be crowded
together, as damage may result. Layers of specimens
should be separated by padding.
Fluid-preserved material should be wrapped in
cheesecloth moistened with the appropriate fluid to
prevent dessication and subsequently placed and
sealed in several plastic bags (Fall, 1965; Quay,
1974). Further protection calls for the wrapped
specimens to be placed in a metal can with airtight
lids. Data sheets must be included with alcoholic
specimens that lack such tags. The loan material
should then be packed in a wooden box of ap-
propriate size (American Society of Mammalogists,
1974). It is recommended that the top of such boxes
be marked for unpacking purposes. Wooden boxes
are reusable more often when covered with wrapping
paper before addressing. Sturdy twine should encir-
cle the wrapping paper as well.
If possible, original packing materials should be
reused when repacking a loan for return. Care must
be exercised when unpacking shipments. Specimens
may inadvertently be discarded with the packing
material.
Prior to return of the material by the borrower, a
letter announcing the subsequent return of the
specimens should be sent to the loaning institution.
At this time, the borrower should include in the
shipment a self-addressed postcard, which the
loaning institution should return, notifying of safe
arrival and satisfactory condition of the shipment. It
is also possible to request a “receipt of delivery”
notice from the receiver, via the postal service. Upon
receipt of the specimens, the lender must ascertain
the condition of the material and return the enclosed
self-addressed postcard to the borrower. The transac-
tion is completed when the invoice is “closed” and
the specimens have been properly returned to their
storage areas, following fumigation. All packing
materials should be removed from the specimens
prior to their reinstallation, at which time loan slips
are removed.
Complete records of loan transactions should be
kept on file. Such documentation includes copies of
the initial request and authorization, specimen in-
voice, inventory receipt of borrower (a copy of in-
voice returned to lender), lender’s return
acknowledgement, carrier’s receipts, and insurance
records.
CONCLUSION
Over the past several years, acquisition of
specimens, as well as equipment and supplies, has, in
many instances, become increasingly difficult. Inter-
national, national, state, and local legislation, in-
timately affecting all our endeavors, has become
more prevalent and complex. Mammalogy as a
discipline is compelled to develop the most efficient,
economical, and responsible management procedures
possible under these circumstances.
We have attempted in this manual to consolidate
the existing literature, the thoughtful and
knowledgeable suggestions of professionals in the
field, and our own philosophies regarding standard-
izing major aspects of collection management. A
great deal of research into curatorial techniques still
remains to be done. We hope that this preliminary
work represents progress in that direction. It has
likewise been our goal throughout this paper to relay
“the museum conscience” so eloquently stated by
Joseph Grinnell (1922).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We extend our sincere appreciation to Drs. S. An-
derson (AMNH), E. C. Birney (MMNH), J. R.
Choate (MHP), R. E. Cole (WFBM), R. E. Dubos
(UCONN), J. P. Farney (VMKSC), R. S. Hoffmann
(KU), E. T. Hooper (UMMZ), S. R. Humphrey
(FSM), F. A. Iwen (UWZM), M. L. Johnson (UPS),
P. M. Lais (OSMNH), R. E. Mumford (PUWL), W.
Z. Lidicker (MVZ), R. L. Peterson (ROM), D. A.
Schlitter (CM), D. J. Schmidly (TCWC), R. M. Wet-
zel (UCONN), D. E. Wilson (USNM), and Ms. S.
69
M. Kortiucke (MVZ) for responding to the question-
naire; to Drs. S. Anderson (AMNH), R. J. Baker
(TTU), G. B. Corbett (British Museum of Natural
History; London), C. Jones (National Bird and
Mammal Laboratories; Washington, D.C.), D. J.
Schmidly (TCWC), H. W. Setzer (USNM), R. W.
Wilson (TTU), C. M. McLaughlin (TTU), J. Miles
(USNM), Ms. R. S. Montgomery (TTU), R. R. Pat-
terson (KU), and D. Sanford (Sanford Insurance
Agency; Lubbock, Texas) for consultation services;
and to Drs. R. E. Dubos (UCONN), J. P. Farney
(VMKSC), R. S. Hoffmann (KU), F. A. Iwen
(UWZM), M. L. Johnson (UPS), R. E. Mumford
(PUWL), R. L. Peterson (ROM), H. W. Setzer
(USNM), R. C. Dowler (TTU), and Ms. R. L. Hen-
dricksen (TTU, CM) for reviewing the manuscript
and providing helpful suggestions.
This publication is the result of a joint project that
began as partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the Collection Management II course of the Museum
Science Program at Texas Tech University.
LITERATURE CITED
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buyer’s pool for insurance? Museum News, 52:32-35.
Allen, E. R., and W. T. Neill 1950. Cleaning mammal skeletons
with meal worms. J. Mamm., 31 :464.
American Society of Mammalogists. 1974. Report and
recommendations of the advisory committee for systematic re-
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published independently, 30 pp.
Anderson, R. M. 1965. Methods of collecting and preserving
vertebrate animals. Bull. Nat. Mus. Canada, 69:viii + 1-199.
Anderson, S. 1973. It costs more to store a whale than a mouse:
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Anderson, S., and J. K. Jones, Jr. (eds.) 1967. Recent mammals
of the World, Ronald Press Co., New York, viii + 453.
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1962. Solving storage problems. Museum News,
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1974. The SELGEM system for information
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1976. Fumigants ... procedures, precautions
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Bolin, R, L, 1935, A method for preparing skeletons of small
vertebrates. Science, 82:446.
Borell. a. E. 1938. Cleaning small collections of skulls and skele-
tons with dermestid beetles. J. Mamm., 19: 102-103.
Brown, J. C., and G, I, Twigg. 1967, The rapid cleaning of bones
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Burns, S,, and N. J, Root. 1975. Restoring and cataloging a rare
motion picture collection. Curator, 18:77-81.
Case, L, D,, Sr. 1959. Preparing mummified specimens for clean-
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Chenhall, R. G. 1975. Museum cataloging in the computer age.
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Choate, J. R,, and H, H. Genoways. 1975. Collections of Recent
mammals in North America. J. Mamm., 56:452-502.
Colbert, E. H. 1961. Inexpensive racks for the storage of large
specimens. Curator, 4:368-370.
Conference of Directors of Systematic Collections. 1971.
The systematic biology collections of the United States: an es-
sential resource. 2 pts. New York Botanical Garden, New York,
xi -F iv, 85 pp.
Cotton, R. T. 1956. Pests of stored grain and grain products.
Burgess Publ. Co., Minneapolis, i -F 306 pp.
DeBlase, a. F., and R. E. Martin. 1974. A manual of mam-
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Publ., Dubuque, Iowa, xv -F 329 pp.
Dice, L. R. 1925. The care of books, pamphlets, and bibliog-
raphies. J. Mamm., 6:250-256.
Dimpel, H. 1971. Tanning large skins for museum collections.
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organiza-
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Dowler, R. C,, and H. H. Genoways. 1976. Supplies and sup-
pliers for vertebrate collections. Museology, Texas Tech Univ.,
4:1-83.
Du Bose, B. M., Jr 1969. Insuring against loss. History News,
Tech. Leaflet, 50:1-4.
Duckett, K. W. 1975. Modern manuscripts. Amer. Assoc. State
Local Hist., Nashville, Tennessee, xvi -f 375 pp.
Dudley, D. H., and 1. B, Wilkinson 1968. Museum registration
methods. Amer. Assoc. Mus. and Smithsonian Inst., Washing-
ton, D.C., viii -F 294 pp.
Dundee. H. A. 1962. A low-cost storage tank for preserved ani-
mals. Turtox News, 40:298-299.
Ellin, E. 1970/71, Consideration in the formation of museum
data banks in the United States of America. Museum, 23:20-21 .
Elwood, j. W. (undated). Lessons in taxidermy. Northwestern
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72
APPENDIX A: Two methods for arrangement of collections of Recent mammals based on Simpson (1945)
with recent taxonomic changes. The left column follows Simpson’s arrangement of living mammals to the
subfamilial level, the genera being arranged alphabetically. The right column follows Simpson’s arrangement
to the generic level.
Class MAMMALIA
Order MONOTREMATA
F. Tachyglossidae
G. Tachyglossus
Zaglossus
F. Ornithorhynchidae
G. Ornithorhynchus
Order MARSUPIALIA
F. Didelphidae
SF. Microbiotheriinae
G. Caluromys
Caluromysiops
SF. Didelphinae
G. Chironectes
Didelphis
Dromiciops
Glironia
Lestodelphis
Lutreolina
Marmosa
Metachirops
Metachirus
Monodelphis
Notodelphis
Philander
F. Dasyuridae
SF. Phascogalinae
G. Antechinomys
Antechinus
Dasycercus
Dasyuroides
Murexia
Myoictis
Neophascogale
Parantechinus
Phascogale
Phascolosorex
Plant gale
Pseudoan tech inus
Sminthopsis
SF. Dasyurinae
G. Dasyurinus
Dasyurops
Dasyurus
Sarcophilus
Satanellus
SF. Thylacininae
G. Thy I acinus
SF. Myrmecobiinae
G. Myrmecobius
F. Notoryctidae
G. Notoryctes
Class MAMMALIA
Order MONOTREMATA
F. Tachglossidae
G. Tachyglossus
Zaglossus
F. Ornithorhychidae
G. Ornithorhychus
Order MARSUPIALIA
F. Didelphidae
SF. Microbiotheriinae
G. Caluromys
Caluromysiops
SF. Didelphinae
G. Monodelphis
Dromiciops
Glironia
Notodelphis
Lestodelphis
Marmosa
Metachirops
Metachirus
Philander
Lutreolina
Didelphis
Chironectes
F. Dasyuridae
SF. Phascogalinae
G. Phascogale
Antechinus
Planigale
Murexia
Neophascogale
Parantechinus
Phascolosorex
Pseudoan techin us
Myoictis
Dasyuroides
Dasycercus
Sminthopsis
Antechinomys
SF. Dasyurinae
G. Dasyurus
Dasyurinus
Satanellus
Dasyurops
Sarcophilus
SF. Thylacininae
G. Thylacinus
SF. Myrmecobiinae
G. Myrmecobius
F. Notoryctidae
G. Notoryctes
73
F. Peramelidae
G. Chaeropus
Echymipera
Isoodon
Microperoryctes
Perameles
Peroryctes
Rhynchomeles
Thy lads
Thylacomys
F. Caenolestidae
SF. Caenolestinae
G. Caenolestes
Lestoros
Orolestes
Rhyncholestes
F. Phalangeridae
SF. Phalangerinae
G. Acrobates
Cercartetus
Dadytonax
Dactylopsila
Distoechurus
Eudromida
Gymnobelideus
Petaurus
Phalanger
Spilocuscus
Trichosurus
IVyulda
SF. Tarsipedinae
G. Tarsipes
SF. Phascolarctinae
G.Hemibelideus
Phascolarctos
Petropseudes
Pseudocheirus
Schoinobales
Sf. Burramyinae
G. Burramys
F. Phascolomidae
G. Lasiorhinus
Phascolomis
Wombatula
F. Macropodidae
SF. Macropodinae
G. Dendrolagus
Dorcopsis
Dorcopsulus
Lagorchestes
Lagostrophus
Macropus
Onychogaiea
Peradorcas
Petrogale
Protemnodon
Setonix
Thylogale
Wallabia
SF. Potoroinae
G. Aepyprymnus
Bettongia
F. Peramelidae
G. Perameles
Peroryctes
Thytads
Microperoryctes
Echymipera
Thylacomys
Chaeropus
Isoodon
Rhynchomeles
F. Caenolestidae
SF. Caenolestinae
G. Caenolestes
Lestoros
Orolestes
Rhyncholestes
F. Phalangeridae
SF. Phalangerinae
G. Phalanger
Trichosurus
Acrobates
Distoechurus
Cercartetus
Eudromida
Gymnobelideus
Petaurus
Dactylopsila
Dactylonax
IVyulda
Spilocuscus
SF. Tarsipedinae
G . Tarsipes
SF. Phascolarctinae
G. Phascolarctos
Pseudocheirus
Hemibelideus
Petropseudes
Schoinobates
SF. Burramyinae
G. Burramys
F. Phascolomidae
G. Phascolomis
Lasiorhinus
Wombatula
F. Macropodidae
SF. Macropodinae
G. Lagorchestes
Lagostrophus
Petrogale
Peradorcus
Onychogaiea
Thylogale
Protemnodon
Wallabia
Macropus
Setonix
Dendrolagus
Dorcopsis
Dorcopsulus
SF. Potoroinae
G. Bettongia
Aepyprymnus
Caloprymnus
Hypsiprymnodon
Polorous
Order INSECTIVORA
F. Solenodontidae
SF. Solenodontinae
G. Solenodon
F. Tenrecidae
SF. Tenrecinae
G. Dasogale
Echinops
Hemicentetes
Setifer
Tenrec
SF. Oryzorictinae
G. Cryptogale
Geogale
Limnogale
Microgale
Oryzorictes
F. Potamogalidae
G. Micropotamogale
Potamogale
F. Chrysochloridae
G. Amblysomus
Chlorotalpa
Chrysochloris
Chrysospalax
Cryptochloris
Eremitalpa
F. Erinaceidae
SF. Echinosoricinae
G. Echinosorex
Hylomys
Neohylomys
Neotetracus
Podogymnura
SF.Erinaceinae
G. Aethechinus
A telerix
Erinaceus
Hemiechinus
Paraechinus
F. Macroscelididae
G. Elephantulus
Macroscelides
Nasilio
Petrodromus
Rhynchocyon
F. Soricidae
SF. Soricinae
G. Blarina
Blarinella
Cryptotis
Megasorex
Microsorex
Neomys
Notiosorex
Podihik
Sorex
Soriculus
SF. Crocidurinae
Caloprymnus
Potorous
Hypsiprymnodon
Order INSECTIVORA
F. Solenodontidae
SF. Solenodontinae
G. Solenodon
F. Tenrecidae
SF. Tenrecinae
G. Tenrec
Setifer
Hemicentetes
Dasogale
Echinops
SF. Oryzorictinae
G. Oryzorictes
Microgale
Cryptogale
Limnogale
Geogale
F. Potamogalidae
G. Potamogale
Micropo tamogale
F. Chrysochloridale
G. Chrysochloris
Eremitalpa
Amblysomus
Chlorotalpa
Chrysospalax
Cryptochloris
F. Erinaceidae
SF. Echinosoricinae
G. Echinsorex
Hylomys
Neohylomys
Podogymnura
Neotetracus
SF. Erinaceinae
G. Aethechinus
Erinaceus
A telerix
Hemiechinus
Paraechinus
F. Macroscelididae
G. Macroscelides
Nasilio
Elephantulus
Petrodromus
Rhynchocyon
F. Soricidae
SF. Soricinae
G. Sorex
Microsorex
Soriculus
Podihik
Neomys
Blarina
Blarinella
Cryptotis
Notiosorex
Megasorex
SF. Crocidurinae
75
G. Anoiirosorex
Chimarrogale
Crocidura
Diplomesodon
Feroculus
Myosorex
Nectogale
Paracrocidura
Praesorex
Solisorex
Suncus
Surdisorex
Sylvisorex
SF. Scutisoricinae
G. Scuiisorex
F. Talpidae
SF. Uropsilinae
G. Nasillus
Uropsilus
SF. Desmaninae
G. Desmana
Galemys
SF. Talpinae
G. Mogera
Parascaplor
Scaptochirus
Tatpa
SF. Scaiopinae
G. Dymecodon
Neurotrichus
Parascalops
Scalopus
Scapanulus
Scapanus
Scaplonyx
Urotrichus
SF. Condylurinae
G. Condylura
Order DERMOPTERA
F. Cynocephalidae
G. Cynocephalus
Order CHIROPTERA
F. Pteropidae
SF. Pteropinae
G. Acerodon
Aethalops
Balionycteris
Boneia
Casinycteris
Chironax
Cynonycteris
Cynopterus
Dobsonia
Dyacopterus
Eidolon
Epomophorus
Epomops
Haplonycteris
Hypsignathus
Lissonycteris
Megaerops
G. Crocidura
Paracrocidura
Praesorex
Suncus
Eeroculus
Solisorex
Sylvisorex
Myosorex
Surdisorex
Diplomesodon
A nourosorex
Chimarrogale
Nectogale
SF. Scutisoricinae
G. Scuiisorex
F. Talpidae
SF. Uropsilinae
G. Uropsilus
Nasillus
SF. Desmaninae
G. Desmana
Galemys
SF. Talpinae
G. Talpa
Mogera
Parascaplor
Scaptochirus
SF. Scaiopinae
G. Scaptonyx
Dymecodon
Neurotrichus
Urotrichus
Scapanulus
Parascalops
Scapanus
Scalopus
SF. Condylurinae
G. Condylura
Order DERMOPTERA
F. Cynocephalidae
G. Cynocephalus
Order CHIROPTERA
F. Pteropidae
SF. Pteropinae
G. Cynopterus
Niadius
Thoopterus
Chironax
Dyacopterus
Penthetor
Sphaerias
Ptenochirus
Megaerops
Balionycteris
Rousettus
Cynonycteris
Myonycteris
Lissonycteris
Pteropus
Neopteryx
Acerodon
Micropleropus
Myonycteris
Nanonycteris
Neopteryx
Ni ad ills
Pen the tor
Plerotes
Ptenochirus
Pteralopex
Pteropus
Rousettus
Scotonycteris
Sericonycteris
Sphaerias
Stylocteniiim
Thoopterus
SF. Macroglossinae
G. Callinycteris
Eonycteris
Macroglossiis
Megaloglossus
Melonycteris
Nesonycteris
Notopteris
Odontonycteris
Syconycteris
SF. Nyctimeninae
G. Nyctimene
Paranyctimene
SF. Flarpyionycterinae
G. Harpyionycteris
F. Rhinopomatidae
G. Rhinopoma
F. Emballonuridae
SF. Emballonurinae
G. Balantiopteryx
Centronycteris
Coleura
Cormura
Emballonura
Liponycteris
Myropteryx
Peronymus
Peropteryx
Rhynchonycteris
Saccopteryx
Taphozous
SF. Diclidurinae
G. Cyttarops
Depanycteris
Diclidurus
F. Noctilionidae
G. Noctilio
F. Nycteridae
G. Nycteris
F. Megadermatidae
G. Lavia
Macroderma
Megaderma
F. Rhinolophidae
G. Rhinolophus
Rhinomegatophus
Pteralopex
Sericonycteris
Aethalops
Boneia
Stylocteniiim
Dobsonia
Haplonycteris
Epomophorus
Epomops
Hypsignathus
Scotonycteris
Micropleropus
Nanonycteris
Plerotes
Casinycteris
Eidolon
SF. Macroglossinae
G. Eonycteris
Callinycteris
Macroglossiis
Odon tony c ter Is
Syconycteris
Megaloglossus
Melonycteris
Nesonycteris
Notopteris
SF. Nyctimeninae
G. Nyctimene
Paranyctimene
SF. Harpyionycterinae
G. Harpyionycteris
F. Rhinopomatidae
G. Rhinopoma
F. Emballonuridae
SF. Emballonurinae
G. Emballonura
Coleura
R hynchonycteris
Saccopteryx
Cormura
Peropteryx
Peronymus
Centronycteris
Balantiopteryx
Myropteryx
Taphozous
Liponycteris
SF. Diclidurinae
G. Cyttarops
Depanycteris
Diclidurus
F. Noctilionidae
G. Noctilio
F. Nycteridae
G. Nycteris
F. Megadermatidae
G. Megaderma
Macroderma
Lavia
F. Rhinolophidae
G. Rhinolophus
Rhinomegalophus
77
F. Hipposideridae
SF. Flipposiderinae
G. Anthops
Asellia
Aselliscus
Cloeotis
Coelops
Hipposideros
Paracoelops
Rhinonicteris
Triaenops
F. Mormoopidae
G. Mormoops
Pteronotus
F. Phyllostomatidae
SF. Phyllostomatinae
G. Chroloplerus
Lonchorhina
Macrophyllum
Macrotus
Micronycteris
Mimon
Phylloderma
Phyllostomus
Tonatia
Trachops
Vampyrum
SF. Glossophaginae
G. Anoura
Choeroniscus
Choeronycteris
Glossophaga
Hylonycteris
Leptonycleris
Lichonycteris
Lionycteris
Lonchophylla
Monophyllus
Musonycteris
Platalina
Scieronycteris
SF. Carolliinae
G. Carollia
Rhinophylla
SF. Stenoderminae
G. Ametrida
A rdrops
Arileus
Artibeus
Centuho
Chiroderma
Corvira
Eclophylla
Enchislhenes
Mesophylla
Phyllops
Pygoderma
Sphaeronycteris
Stenoderma
Sturnira
Uroderma
Vampyressa
F. Hipposideridae
SF. Hipposiderinae
G. Hipposideros
Anthops
Asellia
Aselliscus
Coelops
Paracoelops
Cloeotis
Rhinonicteris
Triaenops
F. Mormoopidae
G. Pteronotus
Mormoops
F. Phyllostomatidae
SF. Phyllostomatinae
G. Micronycteris
Macrotus
Lonchorhina
Macrophyllum
Tonatia
Mimon
Phyllostomus
Phylloderma
Trachops
Chrotopterus
Vampyrum
SF. Glossophaginae
G. Glossophaga
Lionycteris
Lonchophylla
Platalina
Monophyllus
Anoura
Musonycteris
Choeronycteris
Choeroniscus
Scieronycteris
Hylonycteris
Leptonycteris
Lichonycteris
SF. Carolliinae
G. Carollia
Rhinophylla
SF. Stenoderminae
G. Uroderma
Vampyrops
Vampyrodes
Vampyressa
Vampyriscus
Chiroderma
Ectophylla
Mesophylla
Artibeus
Enchisthenes
Sturnira
Corvira
Stenoderma
Ariteus
Phyllops
Ardops
Pygoderma
Vampyriscus
Vampyrodes
Vampyrops
SF. Phyllonycterinae
G. Brachyphylla
ErophyUa
Phyllonycteris
SF. Desmodontinae
G. Desmodus
Diaemus
Diphylla
F. Natalidae
G. Na talus
F. Furipteridae
G. Amorphochilus
Furipterus
F. Thyropteridae
G. Thyroptera
F. Myzopodidae
G. Myzopoda
F. Vespertilionidae
SF. Vespertilioninae
G. Baeodon
Barbastella
Chalinolobus
Cistugo
Eptesicus
Euderma
Eudiscopus
Glauconycteris
Glischropus
Hesperoptenus
Histiotus
Idionycteris
Laephotis
Lasionycteris
Lasiurus
Mimetillus
Myotis
Nyctalus
Nycticeius
Olonycteris
Philetor
Pipistrellus
Pizonyx
Plecotus
Rhinopterus
Rhogeessa
Scotomanes
Scotophilus
Tylonycteris
Vespertilio
SF. Miniopterinae
G. Miniopterus
SF. Murininae
G. Harpiocephalus
Murina
SF. Kerivoulinae
G. Kerivoula
SF. Nyctophilinae
G. Antrozous
NyctophUus
Centurio
A me tr Ida
Sphaeronycteris
SF. Phyllonycterinae
G. Brachyphylla
Phyllonycteris
ErophyUa
SF. Desmodontinae
G. Desmodus
Diaemus
Diphylla
F. Natalidae
G. Na talus
F. Furipteridae
G. Furipterus
Amorphochilus
F. Thyropteridae
G. Thyroptera
F. Myzopodidae
G. Myzopoda
F. Vespertilionidae
SF. Vespertilioninae
G. Myotis
Pizonyx
Lasionycteris
Pipistrellus
Glischropus
Nyctalus
Eudiscopus
Eptesicus
Rhinopterus
Hesperoptenus
Tylonycteris
Mimetillus
Philetor
Histiotus
Laephotis
Vespertilio
Olonycteris
Nycticeius
Scotomanes
Rhogeessa
Baeodon
Scotophilus
Chalinolobus
Glauconycteris
Cistugo
Lasiurus
Barbastella
Plecotus
Idionycteris
Euderma
SF. Miniopterinae
G. Miniopterus
SF. Murininae
G. Murina
Harpiocephalus
SF. Kerivoulinae
G. Kerivoula
SF. Nyctophilinae
G. Antrozous
NyctophUus
79
Pharotis
SF. Tomopeatinae
G. Tomopeas
F. Mystacinidae
G. Mystacina
F. Molossidae
G. Cheirotneles
Eomops
Eumops
Molossops
Molossus
Mops
Mormopterus
Neoplatymops
Otomops
Platymops
Promops
Tadarida
Xiphonycteris
Order PRIMATES
F. Tupaiidae
SF. Tupaiinae
G. Anathana
Dendrogale
Tana
Tupaia
Urogale
SF. Ptilocercinae
G. Ptilocercus
F. Lemuridae
SF. Lemurinae
G. Hapalemur
Lemur
Lepilemur
SF. Cheirogaleinae
G. Cheirogaleus
Microcebus
Phaner
F. Indridae
G. Avahi
Indri
Prophithecus
F. Daubentoniidae
G. Daubentonia
F. Lorisidae
SF. Lorisinae
G. Arctocebus
Loris
Nycticebus
Perodicticus
SF. Galaginae
G. Euoticus
Galago
F. Tarsiidae
G. Tarsius
F. Cebidae
SF. Aotinae
G. Aotes
Callicebus
SF. Pitheciinae
G. Cacajao
Chiropotes
Pharotis
SF. Tomopeatinae
G. Tomopeas
F. Mystacinidae
G. Mystacina
F. Molossidae
G. Eomops
Molossops
Cheiromeles
Xiphonycteris
Tadarida
Mops
Mormopterus
Platymops
Neoplatymops
Otomops
Molossus
Promops
Eumops
Order PRIMATES
F. Tupaiidae
SF. Tupaiinae
G. Tupaia
Anathana
Dendrogale
Tana
Urogale
SF. Ptilocercinae
G. Ptilocercus
F. Lemuridae
SF. Lemurinae
G. Hapalemur
Lemur
Lepilemur
SF. Cheirogaleinae
G. Cheirogaleus
Microcebus
Phaner
F. Indridae
G. Avahi
Indri
Propithecus
F. Daubentoniidae
G. Daubentonia
F. Lorisidae
SF. Lorisinae
G. Loris
Nycticebus
Arctocebus
Perodicticus
SF. Galaginae
G. Galago
Euoticus
F. Tarsiidae
G. Tarsius
F. Cebidae
SF. Aotinae
G. Aotes
Callicebus
SF. Pitheciinae
G. Cacajao
Pithecia
Pithecia
SF. Alouattinae
G. Alouatta
SF. Cebinae
G. Cebus
Saimiri
SF. Atelinae
G. A teles
Brachyteles
Lagothrix
SF. Callimiconinae
G. Callimico
F. Callithricidae
G. Callithrix
Cebuella
Leontideus
Saguinus
F. Cercopithecidae
SF. Cercopithecinae
G. Allenopithecus
Cercocebus
Cercopithecus
Chaeorpithecus
Comopithecus
Cynomacaca
Cynopithecus
Erythrocebus
Macaca
Mandrillus
Miopithecus
Papio
Theropithecus
SF. Colobinae
G. Colobus
Nasalis
Presbytis
Pygathrix
Rhinopithecus
Simias
F. Pongidae
SF. Hylobatinae
G. Hylo bates
Symphalangus
SF. Ponginae
G. Gorilla
Pan
Pongo
F. Hominidae
G. Homo
Order EDENTATA
F. Myrmecophagidae
G. Cyclopes
Myrmecophaga
Tamandua
F. Bradypodidae
G. Brady pus
Choleopus
F. Dasypodidae
SF. Dasypodinae
G. Cabassous
Chaetophractus
Dasypus
Chiropotes
SF. Alouattinae
G. Alouatta
SF. Cebinae
G. Cebus
Saimiri
SF. Atelinae
G. A teles
Brachyteles
Lagothrix
SF. Callimiconinae
G. Callimico
F. Callithricidae
G. Callithrix
Cebuella
Saguinus
Leontideus
F. Cercopithecidae
SF. Cercopithecinae
G. Macaca
Cynomacaca
Cynopithecus
Cercocebus
Papio
Chaeropithecus
Comopithecus
Mandrillus
Theropithecus
Cercopithecus
Miopithecus
Allenopithecus
Erythocebus
SF. Colobinae
G. Presbytis
Pygathrix
Rhinopithecus
Simias
Nasalis
Colobus
F. Pongidae
SF. Hylobatinae
G. Hylobates
Symphalangus
SF. Ponginae
G. Pongo
Pan
Gorilla
F. Hominidae
G. Homo
Order EDENTATA
F. Myrmecophagidae
G. Myrmecophaga
Tamandua
Cyclopes
F. Bradypodidae
G. Bradypus
Choleopus
F. Dasypodidae
SF. Dasypodinae
G. Chaetophractus
Euphractus
Zaedyus
Euphractus
Priodontes
Tolypeutes
Zaedyus
SF. Chlamyphorinae
G. Burmeisteria
Chlamyphorus
Order PHOLIDOTA
F. Manidae
G. Manis
Order LAGOMORPHA
F. Ochotonidae
G. Ochotona
F. Leporidae
SF. Palaeolaginae
G. Pentalagus
Pronolagus
Romerolagus
SF. Leporinae
G. Brachylagus
Caprolagus
Lepus
Nesolagus
Oryctolagus
Poelagus
Sylvilagus
Order RODENTIA
F. Aplodontidae
G. Aplodontia
F. Sciuridae
SF. Sciurinae
G. Ammospermophilus
A tlantoxerus
Callosciurus
Cynomys
Dremomys
Epixerus
Eutamias
Euxerus
Exilisciurus
Eunambulus
Eunisciurus
Geosciurus
Glyphotes
Heliosciurus
Hyosciurus
Lariscus
Marmota
Menetes
Microsciurus
Myosciurus
Nannosciurus
Paraxerus
Prosciurillus
Protoxerus
Ratufa
Rheithrosciurus
Rhinosciurus
SciuriUus
Sciurotamias
Sciurus
Spermophilopsis
Priodontes
Cabassous
Tolypeutes
Dasypus
SF. Chlamyphorinae
G. Chlamyphorus
Burmeisteria
Order PHOLIDOTA
F. Manidae
G. Manis
Order LAGOMORPHA
F. Ochotonidae
G. Ochotona
F. Leporidae
SF. Palaeolaginae
G. Pentalagus
Pronolagus
Romerolagus
SF. Leporinae
G. Caprolagus
Lepus
Poelagus
Sylvilagus
Oryctolagus
Brachylagus
Nesolagus
Order RODENTIA
F. Aplodontidae
G. Aplodontia
F. Sciuridae
SF. Sciurinae
G. Sciurus
Syntheosciurus
Mircosciurus
SciuriUus
Prosciurillus
Rheithrosciurus
Tamiasciurus
Eunambulus
Ratufa
Protoxerus
Epixerus
Eunisciurus
Paraxerus
Heliosciurus
Hyosciurus
Myosciurus
Callosciurus
Tamiops
Sundasciurus
Menetes
Rhinosciurus
Lariscus
Dremomys
Sciurotamias
Glyphotes
Nannosciurus
Exilisciurus
Atlantoxerus
Xerus
Euxerus
Geosciurus
Spennophilus
Sundasciurus
Syntheosciurus
Tamias
Tamiasciurus
Tamiops
Xerus
SF. Petauristinae
G. Aeretes
A eromys
Betomys
Eoglaucomys
Eupetaurus
Glaiicomys
Hylopetes
loinys
Pelaurillus
Petaurista
Petinomys
Pteroinys
Pteromyscus
Sciuropterus
Trogopterus
F. Geomyidae
SF. Geomyinae
G. Geomys
Orlhogeoinys
Pappogeomys
Thomomys
Zygogeomys
F. Fleteromyidae
SF. Perognathinae
G. Microdipodops
Perognathus
SF. Dipodomyinae
G. Dipodomys
SF. Fleteromyinae
G. Heteromys
Liomys
F. Castoridae
SF. Castorinae
G. Castor
F. Anomaluridae
SF. Anomalurinae
G. Anomalurops
Anomalurus
SF. Zenkerellinae
G. Idiurus
Zenkerella
F. Pedetidae
G. Pedetes
F. Cricetidae
SF. Cricetinae
G. Akodon
Andinomys
Anotomys
Baiomys
Blarinomys
Calomys
Calomyscus
Chelemyscus
Chilomys
Spermophilopsis
Marmota
Cynomys
Spermophilus
Ammospermophilus
Tamias
Eutamias
SF. Petauristinae
G. Petaurista
Pteromys
Aeromys
Eupetaurus
Sciuropterus
Glaucomys
Eoglaucomys
Hylopetes
Petinomys
Aeretes
Trogopterus
Belomys
Pteromyscus
Petaurillus
lomys
F. Geomyidae
SF. Geomyinae
G. Geomys
Thomomys
Pappogeomys
Orthogeomys
Zygogeomys
F. Heteromyidae
SF. Perognathinae
G. Perognathus
Microdipodops
SF. Dipodomyinae
G. Dipodomys
SF. Heteromyinae
G. Liomys
Heteromys
F. Castoridae
SF. Castorinae
G. Castor
F. Anomaluridae
SF. Anomalurinae
G. Anomalurus
Anomalurops
SF. Zenkerellinae
G. Idiurus
Zenkerella
F. Pedetidae
G. Pedetes
F. Cricetidae
SF. Cricetinae
G. Oryzomys
Megalomys
Melanomys
Neacomys
Scolomys
Nectomys
Rhipidomys
Thomasomys
Wilfredomys
83
Chinchillula
Cricetulus
Cricetus
Daptomys
Eligomodontia
Euneomys
Craomys
Hesperomys
Holochilus
Ichtohyomys
Irenomys
Lenoxus
Megalomys
Melanomys
Mesocricetus
Microxus
Myospalax
Mystromys
Neacomys
Nectomys
Nelsonia
Neotoma
Neotomodon
Neotomys
Neusticomys
Notiomys
Nyctomys
Ochrotomys
Onychomys
Oryzomys
Otonyctomys
Olotylomys
Oxymycterus
Peromyscus
Phaenomys
Phodopus
Phyllotis
Podoxymys
Pseudoryzomys
Punomys
Reilhrodon
Reithrodontomys
Rhagomys
Rheomys
Rhipidomys
Scapteromys
Scolomys
Scotinomys
Sigmodon
Sigmomys
Thomasomys
Tylomys
Wiedomys
Wilfredomys
Xenomys
Zygodontomys
SF. Nesomyinae
G. Brachytarsomys
Brachyuromys
Eliurus
Gymnuromys
Hypogeomys
Phaenomys
Chilomys
Tylomys
Olotylomys
Nyctomys
Otonyctomys
Rhagomys
Reithrodontomys
Peromyscus
Ochrotomys
Baiomys
Onychomys
Akodon
Zygodontomys
Microxus
Podoxymys
Lenoxus
Oxymycterus
Blarinomys
Notiomys
Scapteromys
Scotinomys
Calomys
Hesperomys
Eligmodontia
Graomys
Wiedomys
Pseudoryzomys
Phyllotis
Irenomys
Chinchillula
Punomys
Neotomys
Reilhrodon
Euneomys
Chelemyscus
Holochilus
Sigmodon
Sigmomys
Andinomys
Neotomodon
Neotoma
Nelsonia
Xenomys
Ichihyomys
Anotomys
Daptomys
Rheomys
Neusticomys
Calomyscus
Phodopus
Cricetus
Cricetulus
Mesocricetus
Mystromys
Myospalax
SF. Nesomyinae
G. Macrotarsomys
Nesomys
Brachytarsomys
Eliurus
Gymnuromys
Macrotarsomys
Nesomys
SF. Lophiomyinae
G. Lophiomys
SF. Microtinae
G. Allicola
A nieliomys
Arvicola
Aschizomys
Blanfordimys
Clethrionomys
Dicrostonyx
Doloniys
EUobius
Eothenomys
Hyperacrius
Lagurus
Lenunus
Microtus
Myopiis
Neofiber
Ondatra
Phenacomys
Pitymys
Promeiheomys
Synaptomys
SF. Gerbillinae
G. Ammodillus
Brachiones
Desmodilliscus
Desmodillus
Gerbillurus
Gerbiltus
Meriones
Monodia
Pachyuromys
Psammomys
Rhombomys
Sekeetamys
Tatera
Taterillus
F. Spalacidae
G. Spa lax
F. Rhizomyidae
G. Cannomys
Rhizomys
Tachyoryctes
F. Muridae
SF. Murinae
G. Acomys
Aethomys
Ammomys
Anisomys
Apodemus
Apomys
A rv icon this
Bandicota
Batomys
Beamys
Carpomys
Chiromyscus
Coelomys
Colomys
Hypogeomys
Brachyuromys
SF. Lophiomyinae
G. Lophiomys
SF. Microtinae
G. Dicrostonyx
Synaptomys
Myopus
Lemmas
Clethrionomys
Aschizomys
Eothenomys
Anteliomys
Alticola
Hyperacrius
Dolomys
Arvicola
Ondatra
Neofiber
Phenacomys
Pitymys
Blanfordimys
Microtus
Lagurus
Prometheomys
EUobius
SF. Gerbillinae
G. Gerbillus
Monodia
Tatera
Taterillus
Gerbillurus
Desmodillus
Desmodilliscus
Pachyuromys
Ammodillus
Meriones
Sekeetamys
Brachiones
Psammomys
Rhombomys
F. Spalacidae
G. Spalax
F. Rhizomyidae
G. Tachyoryctes
Rhizomys
Cannomys
F. Muridae
SF. Murinae
G. Hapalomys
Vernaya
Vandeleuria
Micromys
Apodemus
Thamnomys
Grammomys
Carpomys
Mindanaomys
Batomys
Pithecheir
Hyomys
Conilurus
Zyzomys
85
Conilurus
Cricetomys
Crunomys
Dacnomys
Dasymys
Diomys
Echiothrix
Eropeplus
Golunda
Crarnmomys
Gyomys
Hadromys
Haeromys
Hapalomys
Hybomys
Hylomyscus
Hyomys
Laomys
Leggadina
Leimacomys
Lemniscomys
Leporillus
Lophuromys
Lorentzimys
Macruromys
Malacomys
Mastacomys
Mastomys
Maxomys
Melasmothrix
Melomys
Mesembriomys
Micromys
Millardia
Mindanaomys
Muriculus
Mus
Mycteromys
Mylomys
Myomys
Nesokia
Nesoromys
Nilopegamys
Nolo my s
Oenomys
Pelomys
Pithecheir
Pogonomelomys
Praomys
Pseudomys
Pyromys
Rattus
Rhabdomys
Saccostomus
Solomys
Stenocephalemys
Stochomys
Thallomys
Thamnomys
Tokudaia
Tryphomys
Uranomys
Laomys
Mesembriomys
Oenomys
Ammomys
Mylomys
Dasymys
Arvicanthis
Hadromys
Golunda
Pelomys
Lemniscomys
Rhabdomys
Hybomys
Millardia
Pyromys
Dacnomys
Eropeplus
Stenocephalemys
Aelhomys
Thallomys
Rattus
Maxomys
Hylomyscus
Mastomys
Praomys
Myomys
Stochomys
Tokudaia
Nilopegamys
Tryphomys
Gyomys
Leporillus
Pseudomys
Apomys
Melomys
Solomys
Pogonomelomys
Xenuromys
Uromys
Coelomys
Malacomys
Haeromys
Chiromyscus
Zelotomys
Diomys
Muriculus
Mus
Mycteromys
Leggadina
Colomys
Nesoromys
Crunomys
Macruromys
Lorentzimys
Lophuromys
Leimacomys
Notomys
Mastacomys
Echiothrix
Melasmothrix
Acomys
Uranomys
Uromys
Vandeleuria
Vernaya
Xenuromys
Zelotomys
Zyzomys
SF. Dendromurinae
G. Deanymys
Dendromus
Deomys
Malcothrix
Petromyscus
Prionomys
Steatomys
SF. Otomyinae
G. Myotomys
Otomys
Parotomys
SF. Phloeomyinae
G. Chiropodomys
Crateromys
Lenomys
Mallomys
Papagomys
Phloeomys
Pogonomys
SF. Rhynchotnyinae
G. Rhynchotnys
SF. Hydromyinae
G. Baiyankamys
Celaenomys
Chrotomys
Crossomys
Hydromys
Leptomys
Mayermys
Microhydromys
Neohydromys
Parahydromys
Paraleptomys
Pseudohydromys
Xeromys
F. Gliridae
SF. Glirinae
G. Dryomys
Eliomys
Glirulus
Glis
Muscardinus
Myomimus
SF. Graphiurinae
G. Graphiurus
F. Platacanthomyidae
G. Platacanthomys
Typhlomys
F. Seleveniidae
G. Selevinia
F. Zapodidae
SF. Sicistinae
G. Sicista
SF. Zapodinae
G. Eozapus
Bandicota
Nesokia
Beamys
Saccostomus
Cricetomys
Anisomys
SF. Dendromurinae
G. Dendromus
Malcothrix
Prionomys
Petromyscus
Delanymys
Steatomys
Deomys
SF. Otomyinae
G. Otomys
Myotomys
Parotomys
SF. Phloeomyinae
G. Lenomys
Pogonomys
Chiropodomys
Mallomys
Papagomys
Phloeomys
Crateromys
SF. Rhynchomyinae
G. Rhynchomys
SF. Hydromyinae
G. Chrotomys
Celaenomys
Crossomys
Xeromys
Hydromys
Parahydromys
Neohydromys
Leptomys
Microhydromys
Paraleptomys
Baiyankamys
Pseudohydromys
Mayermys
F. Gliridae
SF. Glirinae
G. Glis
Muscardinus
Eliomys
Dryomys
Glirulus
Myomimus
SF. Graphiurinae
G. Graphiurus
F. Platacanthomyidae
G. Platacanthomys
Typhlomys
F. Seleviniidae
G. Selevinia
F. Zapodidae
SF. Sicistinae
G. Sicista
SF. Zapodinae
G. Zapus
87
Napaeozapus
Zapus
F. Dipodidae
SF. Dipodinae
G. Alactagulus
A llaclaga
Dipus
Eremodipus
Jaculus
Paradipus
Pygeretmus
Scarturus
Scirtopoda
Stylodipus
SF. Cardiocraniinae
G. Cardiocranius
Salpingotus
SF. Euchoreutinae
G. Euchoreutes
F. Hystricidae
SF. Hystricinae
G. Acanthion
Hyslrix
Thecurus
SF. Atherurinae
G. Atherurus
Trichys
F. Erethizontidae
SF. Erethizontinae
G. Coendou
Echinoprocta
Erethizon
SF. Chaetomyinae
G. ‘Chaetomys
F. Caviidae
SF. Caviinae
G. Cavia
Galea
Kerodon
Microcavia
SF. Dolichotinae
G. Dolichotis
F. Hydrochoeridae
SF. Hydrochoerinae
G. Hydrochoerus
F. Dinomyidae
G. Dinomys
F. Dasyproctidae
SF. Cuniculinae
G . Cuniculus ( = Agouti)
Stictomys
SF. Dasyproctinae
G. Dasyprocta
Myoprocta
F. Chinchillidae
G. Chinchilla
Lagidium
Lagostomus
F. Capromyidae
G. Capromys
Geocapromys
Myocastor
Eozapus
Napaeozapus
F. Dipodidae
SF. Dipodinae
G. Dipus
Paradipus
Eremodipus
Jaculus
Scirtopoda
Stylodipus
Scarturus
Allactaga
Alactagulus
Pygeretmus
SF. Cardiocraniinae
G. Cardiocranius
Salpingotus
SF. Euchoreutinae
G. Euchoreutes
F. Hystricidae
SF. Hystricinae
G. Acanthion
Thecurus
Hystrix
SF. Atherurinae
G. Atherurus
Trichys
F. Erethizontidae
SF. Erethizontinae
G. Erethizon
Coendou
Echinoprocta
SF. Chaetomyinae
G. Chaetomys
F. Caviidae
SF. Caviinae
G. Cavia
Kerodon
Galea
Microcavia
SF. Dolichotinae
G. Dolichotis
F. Hydrochoeridae
SF. Hydrochoerinae
G. Hydrochoerus
F. Dinomyidae
G. Dinomys
F. Dasyproctidae
SF. Cuniculinae
G. Cuniculus ( = Agouti)
Stictomys
SF. Dasyproctinae
G. Dasyprocta
Myoprocta
F. Chinchillidae
G. Lagostomus
Lagidium
Chinchilla
F. Capromyidae
G. Capromys
Geocapromys
Procapromys
88
Plagiodontia
Procapromys
F. Octodontidae
G. Aconaemys
Octodon
Octodontomys
Octomys
Spalacopus
F. Ctenomyidae
G. Ctenomys
F. Abrocomidae
G. Abrocoma
F. Echimyidae
SF. Echimyinae
G. Carterodon
Cercomys
Clyotnys
Diplomys
Echimys
Euryzygomatomys
Hoplomys
Isothrix
Loncothrix
Mesomys
Proechimys
SF. Dactylomyinae
G. Dactylomys
Kannabateomys
Lachnomys
Thrinacodus
F. Thryonomyidae
G. Thryonomys
F. Petromyidae
G. Petromus
F. Bathyergidae
G. Bathyergus
Cryptomys
Georychus
Heliophobius
Heterocephalus
F. Ctenodactylidae
G. Ctenodactylus
Felovia
Massoutiera
Pectinator
Order CETACEA
F. Platanistidae
SF. Platanistinae
G. Platanista
SF. Iniinae
G. Inia
Lipotes
SF. Stenodelphininae
G. Stenodelphis
F. Ziphiidae
G. Berardius
Hyperoodon
Mesoplodon
Tasmacetus
Ziphius
F. Physeteridae
SF. Physeterinae
Plagiodontia
Myocastor
F. Octodontidae
G. Octodon
Octodontomys
Spalacopus
Aconaemys
Octomys
F. Ctenomyidae
G. Ctenomys
F. Abrocomidae
G. Abrocoma
F. Echimyidae
SF. Echimyinae
G. Proechimys
Hoplomys
Euryzygomatomys
Clyomys
Carterodon
■Cercomys
Mesomys
Lonchothrix
Isothrix
Diplomys
Echimys
SF. Dactylomyinae
G. Dactylomys
Kannabateomys
Lachnomys
Thrinacodus
F. Thryonomyidae
G. Thryonomys
F. Petromyidae
G. Petromus
F. Bathyergidae
G. Georychus
Cryptomys
Heliophobius
Bathyergus
Heterocephalus
F. Ctenodactylidae
G. Ctenodactylus
Pectinator
Massoutiera
Felovia
Order CETACEA
F. Platanistidae
SF. Platanistinae
G. Platanista
SF. Iniinae
G. Inia
Lipotes
SF. Stenodelphininae
G. Stenodelphis
F. Ziphiidae
G. Mesoplodon
Ziphius
Tasmacetus
Berardius
Hyperoodon
F. Physeteridae
SF. Physeterinae
89
G. Physeler
SF. Kogiinae
G. Kogia
F. Monodontidae
G. Delphinapterus
Monodon
F. Delphinidae
G. Cephalarhynchus
Delphinus
Feresa
Globicephala
Grampus
Lagenodelphis
Lagenorhynchus
Lissodelphis
Orcaella
Ore in us
Prodelphinus
Pseudorca
Sotalia
Sousa
Stenella
Steno
Tursiops
F. Phocaenidae
G. Neomeris
Phocaena
Phocaenoides
F. Eschrichtiidae
G. Eschrichtius
F. Balaenopteridae
G. Balaenoptera
Megaptera
Sibbaldus
F. Balaenidae
G. Balaena
Eubalaena
Neobalaena
Order CARNIVORA
F. Canidae
SF. Caninae
G. Alopex
Atelocynus
Can is
Cerdocyon
Chrysocyon
Dusicyon
Eennecus
Nyctereutes
Urocyon
Vuipes
SF. Simocyoninae
G. Cuon
Lycaon
Speothos
SF. Octocyoninae
G. Otocyon
F. Ursidae
G. Ailuropoda
Euarctos
Helarctos
Melursus
G. Physeter
SF. Kogiinae
G. Kogia
F. Monodontidae
G. Delphinapterus
Monodon
F. Delphinidae
G. Steno
Sousa
Sotalia
Stenella
Prodelphinus
Delphinus
Grampus
Tursiops
Lagenorhynchus
Feresa
Cephalorhynchus
Ore in us
Pseudorca
Orcaella
Globicephala
Lissodelphis
Lagenodelphis
F. Phocaenidae
G. Phocaena
Phocaenoides
Neomeris
F. Eschrichtiidae
G. Eschrichtius
F. Balaenopteridae
G. Balaenoptera
Megaptera
Sibbaldus
F. Balaenidae
G. Balaena
Eubalaena
Neobalaena
Order CARNIVORA
F. Canidae
SF. Caninae
G. Canis
Alopex
Vuipes
Eennecus
Urocyon
Nyctereutes
Dusicyon
Cerdocyon
Atelocynus
Chrysocyon
SF. Simocyoninae
G. Speothos
Cuon
Lycaon
SF. Otocyoninae
G. Otocyon
F. Ursidae
G. Tremarctos
Selenarctos
Ursus
Euarctos
90
Selenarctos
Thalarctos
Tremarctos
Ursus
F. Procyonidae
SF. Procyoninae
G. Bassaricyon
Bassariscus
Nasua
Nasuella
Pot os
Procyon
SF. Ailurinae
G. Ailurus
F. Mustelidae
SF. Mustelinae
G. Charronia
Eira
Galera
Orison
Grisonella
Gulo
Lyncodon
Martes
Mustela
Poeciiictis
Poecilogale
Vormela
Zorilla
SF. Mellivorinae
G. Mellivora
SF. Melinae
G. Arc tony X
Helictis
Meles
Melogale
Mydaus
Suillotaxus
Taxidea
SF. Mephitinae
G. Conepatus
Mephitis
Spilogale
SF. Lutrinae
G. Amblonyx
Aonyx
En hydra
Lontra
Lutra
Paraonyx
Pteronura
F. Viverridae
SF. Viverrinae
G. Civettictis
Genetta
Osbornictis
Pardictis
Poiana
Prionodon
Viverra
Viverricula
SF. Paradoxurinae
G. Arctictis
Thalarctos
Heiarctos
Melursus
Ailuropoda
F. Procyonidae
SF. Procyoninae
G. Bassariscus
Procyon
Nasua
Nasuella
Pot os
Bassaricyon
SF. Ailurinae
G. Ailurus
F. Mustelidae
SF. Mustelinae
G. Mustela
Vormela
Martes
Charronia
Galera
Eira
Grison
Grisonella
Lyncodon
Zorilla
Poeciiictis
Poecilogale
Gulo
SF. Mellivorinae
G. Mellivora
SF. Melinae
G. Meles
Arctonyx
Mydaus
Suillotaxus
Taxidea
Helictis
Melogale
SF. Mephitinae
G. Mephitis
Spilogale
Conepatus
SF. Lutrinae
G. Lutra
Lontra
Lutrogale
Pteronura
Amblonyx
Paraonyx
Enhydra
F. Viverridae
SF. Viverrinae
G. Poiana
Genetta
Viverricula
Osbornictis
Viverra
Civettictis
Prionodon
Pardictis
SF. Paradoxurinae
G. Nandinia
91
Arctogalidia
Marcogalidia
Nandinia
Paguma
Paradoxurus
SF. Hemigalinae
G. Chrotogale
Cy nogale
Diplogale
Eupleres
Fossa
Galidia
Galidictis
He mi gal us
Mungotictis
Salanoia
SF. Herpestinae
G. A tilax
Bdeogale
Crossarchus
Cynictis
Dologale
Helogale
Herpestes
Ichneumia
Liberiicitis
Mungos
Paracynictis
Rhynchogale
Suricata
Xenogale
SF. Cryptoproctinae
G. Cryptoprocta
F. Hyaenidae
SF. Protelinae
G. Pro teles
SF. Hyaeninae
G. Crocuta
Hyaena
F. Felidae
SF. Felinae
G. Acinonyx
Felis
Lynx
Neofelis
Panthrera
Uncia
Order PINNIPEDIA
F. Otariidae
G. Arctocephalus
Callorhinus
Fumetopias
Neophoca
Otaria
Zalophus
F. Odobenidae
G. Odobenus
F. Phocidae
SF. Phocinae
G. Frignathus
Halichoerus
Histriophoca
Arctogalidia
Paradoxurus
Paguma
Macrogalidia
Arctictis
SF. Hemigalinae
G. Fossa
Hemigalus
Chrotogale
Diplogale
Cynogale
Fupleres
Galidia
Galidictis
Mungotictis
Salanoia
SF. Herpestinae
G. Suricata
Herpestes
Helogale
Dologale
A tilax
Mungos
Crossarchus
Liberiicitis
Ichneumia
Bdeogale
Rhynchogale
Cynictis
Paracynictis
Xenogale
SF. Cryptoproctinae
G. Cryptoprocta
F. Hyaenidae
SF. Protelinae
G. Pro teles
SF. Hyaeninae
G. Crocuta
Hyaena
F. Felidae
SF. Felinae
G. Felis
Lynx
Pant her a
Neofelis
Uncia
Acinonyx
Order PINNIPEDIA
F. Otariidae
G. Arctocephalus
Callorhinus
Zalophus
Neophoca
Fumetopias
Otaria
F. Odobenidae
G. Odobenus
F. Phocidae
SF. Phocinae
G. Phoca
Pusa
Histriophoca
Pagophilus
Phoca
Pusa
SF. Lobodontinae
G. Hydrurga
Leptonychotes
Lobodon
Ommalophoca
SF. Monachinae
G. Monachus
SF. Cystophorinae
G. Cystophora
Mirounga
Order TUBULIDENTATA
F. Orycteropodidae
G. Orycteropus
Order PROBOSCIDEA
F. Elephantidae
SF. Elephantinae
G. Elephas
Loxodonta
Order HYRACOIDEA
F. Procaviidae
G. Dendrohyrax
Heterohyrax
Procavia
Order SIRENIA
F. Dugongidae
SF. Dugonginae
G. Dugong
F. Trichechidae
G. Trichechus
Order PERISSODACTYLA
F. Equidae
SF. Equinae
G. Equus
F. Tapiridae
G. Tapirus
F. Rhinocerotidae
SF. Rhinocerotinae
G. Rhinoceros
SF. Dicerorhininae
G. Ceratotherium
Dicerorhinus
Diceros
Order ARTIODACTYLA
F. Suidae
SF. Suinae
G. Babirussa
Hylochoerus
Phacochoerus
Potamochoerus
Sus
F. Tayassuidae
SF. Tayassuinae
G. Dicotyles
Tayassu
F. Hippopotamidae
G. Choeropsis
Hippopotamus
F. Camelidae
SF. Camelinae
Pagophilus
Halichoerus
Erignathus
SF. Lobodontinae
G. Lobodon
Ommalophoca
Hydrurga
Leptonychotes
SF. Monachinae
G. Monachus
SF. Cystophorinae
G. Cystophora
Mirounga
Order TUBULIDENTATA
F. Orycteropodidae
G. Orycteropus
Order PROBOSCIDEA
F. Elephantidae
SF. Elephantinae
G. Loxodonta
Elephas
Order HYRACOIDEA
F. Procaviidae
G. Dendrohyrax
Heterohyrax
Procavia
Order SIRENIA
F. Dugongidae
SF. Dugonginae
G. Dugong
F. Trichechidae
G. Trichechus
Order PERISSODACTYLA
F. Equidae
SF. Equinae
G. Equus
F. Tapiridae
G. Tapirus
F. Rhinocerotidae
SF. Rhinocerotinae
G. Rhinoceros
SF. Dicerorhininae
G. Dicerorhinus
Ceratotherium
Diceros
Order ARTIODACTYLA
F. Suidae
SF. Suinae
G. Potamochoerus
Sus
Phacochoerus
Hylochoerus
Babirussa
F. Tayassuidae
SF. Tayassuinae
G. Tayassu
Dicotyles
F. Hippopotamidae
G. Hippopotamus
Choeropsis
F. Camelidae
SF. Camelinae
93
G . Camelus
Lama
Vicugna
F. Tragulidae
G. Hyemoschus
Tragulus
F. Cervidae
SF. Moschinae
G. Moschus
SF. Muntiacinae
G. Elaphodus
Muntiacus
SF. Cervinae
G. Axis
Cervus
Dam a
Elaphurus
SF. Odocoileinae
G. A Ices
Blastoceros
Blastocerus
Capreolus
Hippocamelus
Hydropotes
Mazama
Odocoileus
Ozotoceras
Pudu
Rangifer
F. Giraffidae
SF. Palaeotraginae
G. Okapia
SF. Giraffinae
G. draff a
F. Antilocapridae
SF. Antilocaprinae
G. Antilocapra
F. Bovidae
SF. Bovinae
G. Anoa
Bibos
Bison
Boocercus
Bos
Boselaphus
Bubalus
Slrepsiceros
Syncerus
Taurotragus
Tetracerus
Tragelaphus
SF. Cephalophinae
G. Cephalophus
Philantomba
Sylvicapra
SF. Hippotraginae
G. Addax
Adenota
Alcelaphus
Beatragus
Connochaetes
Damaliscus
Gorgon
G. Lama
Vicugna
Camelus
F. Tragulidae
G. Hyemoschus
Tragulus
F. Cervidae
SF. Moschinae
G. Moschus
SF. Muntiacinae
G. Muntiacus
Elephodus
SF. Cervinae
G. Dama
Axis
Cervus
Elaphurus
SF. Odocoileinae
G. Odocoileus
Mazama
Hippocamelus
Blastocerus
Blastoceros
Ozotoceras
Pudu
A Ices
Rangifer
Hydropotes
Capreolus
F. Giraffidae
SF. Palaeotraginae
G. Okapia
SF. Giraffinae
G. draff a
F. Antilocapridae
SF. Antilocaprinae
G. Antilocapra
F. Bovidae
SF. Bovinae
G. Strepsiceros
Tragelaphus
Taurotragus
Boocercus
Boselaphus
Tetracerus
Bubalus
Anoa
Bos
Bibos
Syncerus
Bison
SF. Cephalophinae
G. Cephalophus
Philantomba
Sylvicapra
SF. Hippotraginae
G. Kobus
Adenota
Onotragus
Redunca
Pelea
Hippotragus
Oryx
Hippoiragus
Kobus
Onolragus
Oryx
Pelea
Redunca
SF. Antilopinae
G. Aepyceros
Ammodorcas
Antidorcas
Aniilope
Dorcatragus
Gazella
Litocranius
Madoqua
Neotragus
Nesotragus
Oreotragus
Ourebia
Procapra
Raphicerus
Rhynchotragus
SF. Caprinae
G. Ammotragus
Budorcas
Capra
Capricornis
Hemitragus
Naemorhedus
Oreamnos
Ovibos
Ovis
Pantholops
Pseudois
Rupicapra
Saiga
Addax
Damaliscus
Alcelaphus
Beatragus
Connochaetes
Gorgon
SF. Antilopinae
G. Oreotragus
Ourebia
Raphicerus
Nesotragus
Neotragus
Madoqua
Rhynchotragus
Dorcatragus
Antilope
Aepyceros
Ammodorcas
Litocranius
Gazella
Antidorcas
Procapra
SF. Caprinae
G. Pantholops
Saiga
Naemorhedus
Capricornis
Oreamnos
Rupicapra
Budorcas
Ovibos
Hemitragus
Capra
Pseudois
Ammotragus
Ovis
APPENDIX B. — Unmodified phylogenetic arrangements of North American Recent mammals as used by
Miller (1924), Miller and Kellogg (1955), and Hall and Kelson (1959).
95
Miller, 1924
CLASS MAMMALIA
Order MARSUPIALIA
F. Didelphidae
G. Didelphis
Marmosa
Monodelphis
Metachirops
Metachirus
Philander
Chironectes
Order INSECTIVORA
F. Nesophontidae
G. Nesophontes
F. Solenodontidae
G. Solenodon
F. Taipidae
SF. Scalopinae
G. Scapanus
Parascalops
Scalopus
SF. Uropsilinae
G. Neurotrichus
SF. Condylurinae
G. Condylura
F. Soricidae
SF. Soricinae
G. Sorex
Neosorex
Microsorex
Cryptotis
Blarina
Notiosorex
Order CHIROPTERA
F. Emballonuridae
SF. Emballonurinae
G. Rhynchonycteris
Saccopteryx
Cormura
Peropteryx
Centronycteris
Balantiopteryx
SF. Diclidurinae
G. Diclidurus
F. Noctilionidae
G. Noctilio
Diras
F. Phyllostomatidae
SF. Chilonycterinae
G. Chilonycteris
Pteronotus
Mormoops
SF. Phyllostomatinae
G. Micronycteris
Xenoctenes
Glyphonycteris
Macrotus
Lonchorhina
Miller and Kellogg, 1955
CLASS MAMMALIA
Order MARSUPIALIA
F. Didelphidae
G. Didelphis
Marmosa
Monodelphis
Philander
Metachirus
Calurotnys
Chironectes
Order INSECTIVORA
F. Solenodentidae
G. Solenodon
A topogale
F. Soricidae
SF. Soricinae
G. Sorex
Microsorex
Blarina
Cryptotis
Notiosorex
Megasorex
F. Taipidae
SF. Scalopinae
G. Neurotrichus
Scapanus
Parascalops
Scalopus
SF. Condylurinae
G. Condylura
F. Nesophontidae
G. Nesophontes
Order CHIROPTERA
F. Emballonuridae
SF. Emballonurinae
G. Rhynchonycteris
Saccopteryx
Cormura
Peropteryx
Centronycteris
Balantiopteryx
SF. Diclidurinae
G. Diclidurus
F. Noctilionidae
G. Noctilio
F. Phyllostomatidae
SF. Chilonycterinae
G. Chilonycteris
Pteronotus
Mormoops
SF. Phyllostomatinae
G. Micronycteris
Macrotus
Lonchorhina
Macrophyllum
Tonatia
Hall and Kelson, 1959
CLASS MAMMALIA
Order MARSUPIALIA
F. Didelphidae
G. Didelphis
Chironectes
Philander
Marmosa
Calurotnys
Monodelphis
Metachirus
Order INSECTIVORA
F. Solenodontidae
G. Solenodon
A topogale
F. Soricidae
SF. Soricinae
G. Sorex
Microsorex
Blarina
Cryptotis
Notiosorex
F. Taipidae
SF. Scalopinae
G. Neurotrichus
Scapanus
Parascalops
Scalopus
SF. Condylurinae
G. Condylura
F. Nesophontidae
G. Nesophontes
Order CHIROPTERA
F. Emballonuridae
SF. Emballonurinae
G. Rhynchonycteris
Saccopteryx
Cormura
Peropteryx
Centronycteris
Balantiopteryx
SF. Diclidurinae
G. Diclidurus
F. Noctilionidae
G. Noctilio
F. Phyllostomatidae
SF. Chilonycterinae
G. Chilonycteris
Pteronotus
Mormoops
SF. Phyllostomatinae
G. Micronycteris
Macrotus
Lonchorhina
Macrophyllum
Tonatia
96
Macrophylluni
Mimon
Mimon
Tonatia
Phyllostomus
Phyllostomus
Mimon
Phylloderma
Phylloderma
Phyllostomus
Trachops
Trachops
Trachops
Chrotopterus
Chrotopterus
Chrotopterus
Vampyrum
Vampyrum
Vampyrum
SF. Glossophaginae
SF. Glossophaginae
SF. Glossophaginae
G. Glossophaga
G. Glossophaga
G. Glossophaga
Lonchophylla
Lonchophylla
Lonchophylla
Monophyllus
Monophyllus
Monophyllus
Anoura
Anoura
Anoura
Choeronycteris
Choeronycteris
Choeronycteris
Hylonycteris
Choeroniscus
Choeroniscus
Leptonycleris
Hylonycteris
Hylonycteris
Lichonycteris
Leptonycteris
Leptonycteris
Lichonycteris
Lichonycteris
SF. Carolliinae
SF. Carolliinae
SF. Carolliinae
G. Caro Ilia
G. Carollia
G. Carollia
SF. Sturnirinae
SF. Sturnirinae
SF. Sturnirinae
G. Sturnira
G. Sturnira
G. Sturnira
Sturnirops
Sturnirops
SF. Stenoderminae
SF. Stenoderminae
SF. Stenoderminae
G. Brachyphylla
G. Brachyphylla
G. Brachyphylla
Uroderma
Uroderma
Uroderma
Vampyrops
Vampyrops
Platyrrhinus
Vampyrodes
Vampyrodes
Vampyrodes
Vampyressa
Vampyressa
Vampyressa
Chiroderma
Chiroderma
Chiroderma
Ectophylla
Ectophylla
Ectophylla
Artibeus
Artibeus
Artibeus
A rdops
Enchisthenes
Enchisthenes
Phyllops
A rdops
A rdops
Ariteus
Phyllops
Phyllops
Stenoderma
A riteus
Ariteus
Pygoderma
Stenoderma
Stenoderma
Centurio
Pygoderma
Pygoderma
Centurio
Centurio
SF. Phyllonycterinae
SF. Phyllonycterinae
SF. Phyllonycterinae
G. Phyllonycleris
G. Erophylla
G. Erophylla
Erophylla
Phyllonycleris
Phyllonycleris
Reithronycteris
Reithronycteris
. Desmodontidae
F. Desmodontidae
F. Desmodontidae
G. Desmodus
G. Desmodus
G. Desmodus
Diphylla
Diphylla
Diphylla
. Natalidae
F. Natalidae
F. Natalidae
G. Na talus
G. Na talus
G. Natal us
Chilonatalus
Nyctiellus
. Thyropteridae
F. Thyropteridae
F. Thyropteridae
G. Thyroptera
G. Thyroptera
G. Thyroptera
. Vespertilionidae
F. Vespertilionidae
F. Vespertillionidae
SF. Vespertilioninae
SF. Vespertilioninae
SF. Vespertilioninae
G. My Otis
G. My Otis
G. My Otis
Pizonyx
Pizonyx
Pizonyx
Lasionycteris
Lasionycteris
Lasionycteris
Pipistrellus
Pipistrellus
Pipistrellus
Eptesicus
Eptesicus
Eptesicus
Nycteris
Lasiurus
Lasiurus
Dasypterus
Dasypterus
Dasypterus
Nycticeius
Nycticeius
Nycticeius
Rhogeessa
Rhogeessa
Rhogeessa
Baeodon
Euderma
Corynorhinus
Idionycteris
SF. Nyctophilinae
G. Antrozous
F. Molossidae
G. Molossops
Tadarida
Mormopterus
Promops
Eumops
Molossus
Order CARNIVORA
F. Ursidae
G. Euarctos
Ursus
Thalarctos
F. Procyonidae
G. Procyon
Nasua
Bassaricyon
Pot os
F. Mustelidae
SF. Mustelinae
G. Martes
Mustela
SF. Guloniae
G. Gulo
SF. Lutrinae
G. Lutra
SF. Enhydrinae
G. En hydra
SF. Tayrinae
G. Tayra
SF. Grisoninae
G. Orison
SF. Mephitinae
G. Spilogale
Mephitis
Conepatus
SF. Taxidiinae
G. Taxidea
F. Viverridae
SF. Mungotinae
G. Mangos
F. Canidae
SF. Caninae
G. Vulpes
Urocyon
Alopex
Can is
SF. Cuoninae
G. let icy on
F. Felidae
G. Eel is
Lynx
Order PINNIPEDIA
F. Otariidae
G. Zalophus
Eumetopias
Callorhinus
Baeodon
Euderma
Corynorhinus
Idionycteris
SF. Nyctophilinae
G. Antrozous
F. Molossidae
G. Cynomops
Tadarida
Mormopterus
Promops
Eumops
Molossus
Order PRIMATES
F. Cebidae
SF. Aotinae
G. Aotus
SF. Alouattinae
G. Alouatta
SF. Cebinae
G. Cebus
Saimiri
SF. Atelinae
G. A teles
F. Callithricidae
G. Marikina
F. Cercopithecidae
SF. Cercopithecinae
G. Cercopithecus
F. Hominidae
G. Homo
Order EDENTATA
F. Megalonychidae
G. Acratoenus
Paroenus
F. Myrmecophagidae
Baeodon
Euderma
Corynorhinus
Idionycteris
SF. Nyctophilinae
G. Antrozous
F. Molossidae
G. Cynomops
Tadarida
Mormopterus
Eumops
Promops
Molossus
Order PRIMATES
F. Cebidae
SF. Aotinae
G. Aotus
SF. Alouattinae
G. Alouatta
SF. Cebinae
G. Cebus
Saimiri
SF. Atelinae
G. A teles
F. Callithricidae
G. Saguinus
F. Cercopithecidae
SF. Ceropithecinae
G. Cercopithecus
F. Hominidae
G. Homo
Order EDENTATA
F. Megalonychidae
G. Acratoenus
Paroenus
F. Myrmecophagidae
98
Arctocephalus
F. Phocidae
G. Phoca
Erignathus
Monachus
Halichoerus
Cystophora
Mirounga
F. Odobenidae
G. Odobenus
Order PRIMATES
F. Callitrichidae
G. Cedipomidas
F. Alouattidae
G. Alouatta
F. Aotidae
G. Aotus
F. Cebidae
SF. Cebinae
G. Cebus
SF. Atelinae
G. A teles
F. Saimiridae
G. Saimiri
F. Lasiopygidae
SF. Lasiopyginae
G. Lasiopyga
F. Hominidae
G. Homo
Order RODENTIA
F. Sciuridae
SF. Sciurinae
G. Mar mot a
Ot os perm oph it us
Callospermophilus
Citellus
A mmospermophilus
Cynomys
Eutamias
Tamias
Sciurus
Microsciurus
Syntheosciurus
SF. Pteromyinae
G. Glaucomys
F. Geomyidae
SF. Geomyinae
G. Thomomys
Geomys
Pappogeomys
Cratogeomys
Platygeomys
Orthogeomys
Hetergeomys
Macrogeomys
Zygogeomys
F. Heteromyidae
G. Heteromys
G. Myrmecophaga
Tamandua
Cyclopes
F. Bradypodidae
G. Brady pus
Choloepus
F. Dasypodidae
SF. Cabassouinae
G. Cabassous
SF. Dasypodinae
G. Dasypus
Order LAGOMORPHA
F. Ochotonidae
G. Ochotona
F. Leporidae
SF. Palaeolaginae
G. Romerolagus
SF. Leporinae
G. Lepus
Sylvilagus
Order RODENTIA
F. Aplodontidae
G. Aplodontia
F. Sciuridae
SF. Sciurinae
G. Marmota
Cynomys
Citellus
Tamias
Eutamias
Sciurus
Tamiasciurus
Microsciurus
Syntheosciurus
SF. Pteromyinae
G. Glaucomys
F. Geomyidae
SF. Geomyinae
G. Thomomys
Geomys
Pappogeomys
Cratogeomys
Orthogeomys
Heterogeomys
Macrogeomys
Zygogeomys
F. Heteromyidae
SF. Perognathinae
G. Myrmecophaga
Tamandua
Cyclopes
F. Bradypodidae
G. Brady pus
Choloepus
F. Dasypodidae
SF. Dasypodinae
G. Cabassous
Dasypus
Order LAGOMORPHA
F. Ochotonidae
G. Ochotona
F. Leporidae
SF. Palaeolaginae
G. Romerolagus
SF. Leporinae
G. Sylvilagus
Lepus
Order RODENTIA
F. Aplodontidae
G. Aplodontia
F. Sciuridae
SF. Sciurinae
G. Tamias
Eutamias
Marmota
A mmospermophilus
Spermophilus
Cynomys
Sciurus
Syntheosciurus
Microsciurus
Tamiasciurus
SF. Pteromyinae
G. Glaucomys
F. Geomyidae
SF. Geomyinae
G. Thomomys
Geomys
Zygogeomys
Orthogeomys
Heterogeomys
Macrogeomys
Pappogeomys
Cratogeomys
F. Heteromyidae
SF. Perognathinae
99
Liomys
Perognathus
Dipodomys
Microdipodops
F. Castoridae
G. Castor
F. Cricetidae
SF. Cricetinae
G. Onychomys
Reithrodon tomys
Baiomys
Peromyscus
Oryzomys
Neacomys
Zygodontomys
Megalomys
Tylomys
Ototylomys
Nectomys
Rheomys
Nyctomys
Rhipidomys
Cecomys
Sigmodon
Scotinomys
Neotomodon
Nelsonia
Teanopus
Neotoma
Hodomys
Xenomys
SF. Microtinae
G. Synaptomys
Lemmas
Dicrostonyx
Phenacomys
Evotomys
Microtus
Lagurus
Pitymys
Neofiber
Ondatra
F. Muridae
SF. Murinae
G. Rattus
Mas
F. Aplodontidae
G. Aplodontia
F. Zapodidae
SF. Zapodinae
G. Zapus
Napaeozapus
F. Erethizontidae
G. Erethizon
Coendou
G. Perognathus
SF. Dipodomyinae
G. Dipodomys
Microdipodops
SF. Heteromyinae
G. Heteromys
Liomys
F. Castoridae
G. Castor
F. Cricetidae
SF. Cricetinae
G. Oryzomys
Oecomys
Megalomys
Neacomys
Nectomys
Rhipidomys
Tylomys
Ototylomys
Nyctomys
Otonyctomys
Reithrodontomys
Peromyscus
Baiomys
Onychomys
Zygodontomys
Scotinomys
Sigmodon
Neotomodon
Neotoma
Teanopus
Nelsonia
Rheomys
Xenomys
SF. Microtinae
G. Dicrostonyx
Synaptomys
Lemmus
Clethrionomys
Phenacomys
Orthriomys
Herpetomys
Microtus
Pedomys
Pitymys
Lagurus
Neofiber
Ondatra
F. Muridae
G. Rattus
Mus
F. Zapodidae
SF. Zapodinae
G. Zapus
Napaeozapus
F. Erethizontidae
G. Erethizon
Coendou
G. Perognathus
Microdipodops
SF. Dipodomyinae
G. Dipodomys
SF. Fleteromyinae
G. Liomys
Heteromys
F. Castoridae
G. Castor
F. Cricetidae
SF. Cricetinae
G. Oryzomys
Megalomys
Neacomys
Nectomys
Rhipidomys
Tylomys
Ototylomys
Nyctomys
Otonyctomys
Reithrodontomys
Peromyscus
Baiomys
Onychomys
Zygodontomys
Scotinomys
Sigmodon
Neotomodon
Neotoma
Xenomys
Nelsonia
Rheomys
SF. Microtinae
G. Clethrionomys
Phenacomys
Microtus
Lagurus
Neo fiber
Ondatra
Lemmus
Synaptomys
Dicrostonyx
F. Muridae
G. Rattus
Mus
F. Zapodidae
SF. Zapodinae
G. Zapus
Napaeozapus
F. Erethizontidae
G. Erethizon
Coendou
100
F. Echimyidae
SF. Echimyinae
G. Hoplomys
Proechimys
Echimys
Diplomys
Brotornys
Boromys
Capromys
Plagiodontia
Isolobodon
F. Dasyproctidae
G. Dasyprocta
F. Cuniculidae
G. Cuniculus
F. Hydrochaeridae
G. Hydrochaerus
Order LAGOMORPHA
F. Ochotonidae
G. Ochotona
F. Leporidae
G. Lepus
Sylvilagus
Brachylagus
Romerolagus
F. Hydrochaeridae
SF. Hydrochaerinae
G. Hydrochaeris
F. Heptaxodontidae
SF. Heptaxodontinae
G. Heptaxodon
Elasmodontomys
Quemisia
F. Dasyproctidae
SF. Cuniculinae
G. Cuniculus
SF. Dasyproctinae
G. Dasyprocta
F. Capromyidae
SF. Capromyinae
G. Capromys
Geocapromys
Hexolobodon
SF. Plagiodontinae
G. Plagiodontia
Isolobodon
Aphaetreus
SF. Myocastorinae
G. My ocas tor
F. Echimyidae
SF. Echimyinae
G. Hoplomys
Proechimys
Echimys
Diplomys
Heteropsomys
Homopsomys
Brotornys
Boromys
Order CETACEA
F. Ziphiidae
G. Berardius
Mesoplodon
Ziphius
Hyperoodon
F. Physeteridae
G. Physeter
F. Kogiidae
G. Kogia
F. Monodontidae
SF. Delphinapterinae
G. Delphinapterus
SF. Monodontinae
G. Monodon
F. Delphinidae
SF. Delphininae
G. Stenella
Steno
Delphinus
Tursiops
Lissodelphis
Lagenorhynchus
Grampus
Grampidelphis
Pseudorca
Globicephala
Phocoena
Phocoenoides
F. Hydrochaeridae
SF. Hydrochaerinae
G. Hydrochaeris
F. Heptaxodontidae
SF. Heptaxodontinae
G. Heptaxodon
Elasmodontomys
Quemisia
F. Dasyproctidae
SF. Agoutinae
G. Agouti
SF. Dasyproctinae
G. Dasyprocta
F. Capromyidae
SF. Capromyinae
G. Capromys
Geocapromys
Hexolobodon
SF. Plagiodontinae
G. Plagiodontia
Isolobodon
Aphaetreus
SF. Myocastorinae
G. My ocas tor
F. Echimyidae
SF. Echimyinae
G. Hoplomys
Proechimys
Echimys
Diplomys
Heteropsomys
Homopsomys
Brotornys
Boromys
Order CETACEA
F. Ziphiidae
G, Berardius
Mesoplodon
Ziphius
Hyperoodon
F. Physeteridae
G. Physeter
F. Kogiidae
G. Kogia
F. Monodontidae
SF. Delphinapterinae
G. Delphinapterus
SF. Monodontinae
G. Monodon
F. Delphinidae
SF. Delphininae
G. Stenella
Steno
Delphinus
Tursiops
Lissodelphis
Lagenorhynchus
Grampus
Grampidelphis
Pseudorca
Globicephala
Eeresa
Phocoena
101
Order ARTIODACTYLA
F. Tayassuidae
G. Pecari
Tayassu
F. Cervidae
SF. Cervinae
G. Cervus
Odocoileus
Mazama
A Ices
Rangifer
F. Antilocapridae
G. Antilocapra
F. Bovidae
G. Bison
Ovibos
Ovis
Oreamnos
Order PERISSODACTYLA
F. Tapiridae
G. Tapirella
F. Eschrichtidae
G. Eschrichtius
F. Balaenopteridae
SF. Balaenopterinae
G. Balaenoplera
Sibbaldus
SF. Megapterinae
G. Megaptera
F. Balaenidae
G. Eubalaena
Balaena
Order CARNIVORA
F. Canidae
SF. Caninae
G. Canis
Alopex
Vulpes
Urocyon
SF. Simocyoninae
G. let icy on
F. Ursidae
G. Euarctos
Ursus
Thalarctos
F. Procyonidae
SF. Procyoninae
G. Bassariscus
Jentinkia
Procyon
Nasua
Pot os
Bassaricyon
F. Mustelidae
SF. Mustelinae
G. Martes
Mustela
SF. Tayrinae
G. Tayra
SF. Grisoninae
G. Grison
SF. Guloninae
G. Gulo
SF. Taxidiinae
G. Tax idea
SF. Mephitinae
G. Spitogale
Mephitis
Conepatus
SF. Lutrinae
G. Lutra
SF. Enhydrinae
G. Enhydra
F. Viverridae
SF. Herpestinae
G. Herpestes
F. Felidae
G. Felis
Lynx
Order PINNIPEDIA
F. Otariidae
SF. Arctocephalinae
G. Callorhinus
Arctocephalus
SF. Otariinae
G. Eumetopias
Zalophus
F. Eschrichtidae
G. Eschrichtius
F. Balaenopteridae
SF. Balaenopterinae
G. Balaenoptera
Sibbaldus
SF. Megapterinae
G. Megaptera
F. Balaenidae
G. Eubalaena
Balaena
Order CARNIVORA
F. Canidae
SF. Caninae
G. Canis
Alopex
Vulpes
Urocyon
SF. Simocyoninae
G. Speothos
F. Ursidae
G . Ursus
Thalarctos
F. Procyonidae
SF. Procyoninae
G. Bassariscus
Procyon
Nasua
Pot os
Bassaricyon
F. Mustelidae
SF. Mustelinae
G. Martes
Mustela
SF. Tayrinae
G. Eira
SF. Grisoninae
G. Galictis
SF. Guloninae
G. Gulo
SF. Taxidiinae
G. Taxidea
SF. Mephitinae
G. Spilogale
Mephitis
Conepatus
SF. Lutrinae
G. Lutra
SF. Enhydrinae
G. Enhydra
F. Viverridae
SF. Herpestinae
G. Herpestes
F. Felidae
G. Felis
Lynx
Order PINNIPEDIA
F. Otariidae
SF. Arctocephalinae
G. Callorhinus
Arctophoca
SF. Otariinae
G. Eumetopias
Zalophus
102
Order XENARTHA
F. Bradypodidae
G. Brady pus
F. Choloepodidae
G. Choloepus
F. Myrmecophagidae
G. Cyclopes
Tamandua
Myrmecophaga
F. Dasypodidae
SF. Dasypodinae
G. Dasypus
SF. Cabassouinae
G. Cabassous
Order SIRENIA
F. Trichechidae
G. Trichechus
Order CETACEA
F. Balaenidae
G. Eubaiaena
Balaena
F. Rhachianectidae
G. Rhachianectes
F. Blaenopteridae
SF. Balaenopterinae
G. Balaenoptera
Sibbaldus
SF. Megapterinae
G. Megaptera
F. Physeteridae
G. Physeter
F. Kogiidae
G. Kogia
F. Delphinidae
SF. Delphininae
G. Prodelphinus
Steno
Delphinus
Tursiops
Lissodelphis
Lagenorhynchus
Orcinus
Grampus
Pseudorca
Globicephala
Phocaena
Phocoenoides
SF. Delphinapterinae
G. Delphinaplerus
SF. Monodontinae
G. Monodon
F. Ziphiidae
G. Beraridus
Mesoplodon
Ziphius
Hyperoodon
F. Odobenidae
G. Odobenus
F. Phocidae
SF. Phocinae
G. Phoca
Erignathus
Halkhoerus
SF. Monachinae
G. Monachus
SF. Cystophorinae
G. Cystophora
Mirounga
Order SIRENIA
F. Trichechidae
G. Trichechus
Order PERISSODACTYLA
F. Tapiridae
G. Tapirella
Order ARTIODACTYLA
F. Tayassuidae
G. Pecari
Tayassu
F. Cervidae
SF. Cervinae
G. Cervus
SF. Odocoileinae
G. Odoco ileus
Mazama
A Ices
Rangifer
F. Antilocapridae
G. Antilocapra
F. Bovidae
SF. Bovinae
G. Bison
SF. Caprinae
G. Oreamnos
Ovibos
Ovis
F. Odobenidae
G. Odobenus
F. Phocidae
SF. Phocinae
G. Phoca
Erignathus
Halkhoerus
SF. Monachinae
G. Monachus
SF. Cystophorinae
G. Cystophora
Mirounga
Order SIRENIA
F. Trichechidae
G. Trichechus
Order PERISSODACTYLA
F. Tapiridae
G. Tapirus
Order ARTIODACTYLA
F. Tayassuidae
G. Tayassu
F. Cervidae
SF. Cervinae
G. Cervus
SF. Odocoileinae
G. Dama
Mazama
A Ices
Rangifer
F. Antilocapridae
G. Antilocapra
F. Bovidae
SF. Bovinae
G. Bison
SF. Caprinae
G. Oreamnos
Ovibos
Ovis
103
APPENDIX c. — Geographical arrangement of North American localities based on the system originating at the
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at Berkeley.
Country State
Canada
1 . Northwest Territories
7.
Ontario
2. Yukon Territory
8.
Quebec
3. British Columbia
9.
Newfoundland - Labrador
4. Alberta
10.
New Brunswick
5. Saskatchewan
11.
Prince Edward Island
Greenland
Iceland
6. Manitoba
12.
Nova Scotia
United States
1. Alaska
26.
Hawaii
2. Washington
27.
California
3. Montana
28.
Nevada
4. North Dakota
29.
Utah
5. South Dakota
30.
Colorado
6. Minnesota
31.
Kansas
7. Wisconsin
32.
Missouri
8. Michigan
33.
Kentucky
9. Maine
34.
West Virginia
10. New York
35.
Maryland
11. Vermont
36.
Delaware
12. New Hampshire
37.
Virginia
13. Massachusetts
38.
Arizona
14. Connecticut
39.
New Mexico
15. Rhode Island
40.
Oklahoma
16. Oregon
41.
Arkansas
17. Idaho
42.
Tennessee
18. Wyoming
43.
North Carolina
29. Nebraska
44.
Texas
20. Iowa
45.
Louisiana
21. Illinois
46.
Mississippi
22. Indiana
47.
Alabama
23. Ohio
48.
Georgia
24. Pennsylvania
49.
South Carolina
25. New Jersey
50.
Florida
Mexico
1. Baja California
17.
Guanajuato
2. Sonora
18.
Queretaro
3. Chihuahua
19.
Hidalgo
4. Coahuila
20.
Colima
5. Nuevo Leon
21.
Michoacan
6. Tamaulipas
22.
Mexico
7. Sinaloa
23.
Mexico, Distrito Federal
8. Durango
24.
Tlaxcala
9. Zacatecas
25.
Puebla
10. San Luis Potosf
26.
Morelos
11. Nayarit
27.
Tabasco
12. Aguascalientes
28.
Campeche
13. Veracruz
29.
Guerrero
14. Yucatan
30.
Oaxaca
15. Quintana Roo
16. Jalisco
31.
Chiapas
Cuba
Haiti
Dominican Republic
Jamaica
Puerto Rico
Belize
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
104
APPENDIX D. — Alphabetical arrangement of North American localities.
Country State
Belize
Canada
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Greenland
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Iceland
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Puerto Rico
United States
1. Alberta
2. British Columbia
3. Manitoba
4. New Brunswick
5. Newfoundland-Labrador
6. Northwest Territories
1. Aguascalientes
2. Baja California
3. Campeche
4. Chiapas
5. Chihuahua
6. Coahuila
7. Colima
8. Durango
9. Guanajuato
10. Guerrero
11. Hidalgo
12. Jalisco
13. Mexico
14. Mexico, Distrito Federal
15. Michoacan
16. Morelos
1. Alabama
2. Alaska
3. Arizona
4. Arkansas
5. California
6. Colorado
7. Connecticut
8. Delaware
9. Florida
10. Georgia
11. Hawaii
12. Idaho
13. Illinois
14. Indiana
15. Iowa
16. Kansas
17. Kentucky
18. Louisiana
19. Maine
20. Maryland
21. Massachusetts
22. Michigan
23. Minnesota
24. Mississippi
25. Missouri
7. Nova Scotia
8. Ontario
9. Prince Edward Island
10. Quebec
11. Saskatchewan
12. Yukon Territory
17. Nayarit
18. Nuevo Leon
19. Oaxaca
20. Puebla
21. Queretaro
22. Quintana Roo
23. San Luis Potosi
24. Sinaloa
25. Sonora
26. Tabasco
27. Tamaulipas
28. Tlaxcala
29. Veracruz
30. Yucatan
31. Zacatecas
26. Montana
27. Nebraska
28. Nevada
29. New Hampshire
30. New Jersey
31. New Mexico
32. New York
33. North Carolina
34. North Dakota
35. Ohio
35. Oklahoma
36. Oregon
38. Pennsylvania
39. Rhode Island
40. South Carolina
41. South Dakota
42. Tennessee
43. Texas
44. Utah
45. Vermont
46. Virginia
47. Washington
48. West Virginia
49. Wisconsin
50. Wyoming
105
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WHEN
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WHERE
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Informal Swedish National
Division: efense
Institutic
D. C.
'ide range of
General iDcumental services,
documer
utilizatio
IRGMA
Information
Retrieval Group of
the Museum
Association
1967
Great Britain
General data
documentation and
utilization.
COBOL
nknown
JM 7090/1401;
ilexowriter 2301
Widely u
lections;
modifica
improvei
broadly
highly fl(
can inter
other pr<
associate
program
remote ti
capabilit
64 K me
drives; 3
has been
UNIVAC
1110, GI
IBM 370
CDC 31(jpyj. index production
well 201fjf name, place.
Input; u][id subject;
nance; e(bject description,
writing;
indexing
utility fu
Free acq
-$5000 ft
ration; u
about 31
nknown
imited utilization
y other collections;
oes not interact
ith other programs.
Unknown
IBM 360
Input; file merging;
inventory; catalog
output.
Unknown
Designed for
efficient interaction
with other programs.
MARK IV
None
1968
Informatics Incorporated;
Canoga Park,
California
Information retrieval;
inventory control for
business oriented data.
Non-procedural
language
IBM 360; OS, DOS,
or TDOS operating
systems.
Input; updating;
maintenance; editing;
report writing; query;
retrieval; indexing;
utility functions.
$70,000 or $40,000
(for non-profit
organizations) for
acquisition of program.
Marketed through the
Service Bureau
Corporation; broadly
applicable; highly
flexible; can interact
with other programs.
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APPENDIX E
Comparison chart, nine computerized information retrieval programs.
SELGEM
GRIPHOS
GIPSY
GIS
DEFINITION
SELF GEneraiing
Master
General Information
Processor for
Humanities-Oriented
Studies
Generalized Information
Processing System
Generalized
Information System
WHEN
DEVELOPED
1970
1967
1968
1971
WHERE
DEVELOPED
Information Systems
Division; Smithsonian
Institution, Washington,
D. C.
State University of
New York; Stony
Brook, New York
Research Institute
and Merrick Computer
Center; University of
Oklahoma; Norman,
Oklahoma
International
Business Machines
Corporation (IBM);
White Plains, New York
WHY
DEVELOPED
General collection
documentation and
utilization.
General collection
documentation and
utilization.
Ethnographic data
documentation and
utilization; has been used
for biological collections.
General data
documentation and
utilization.
LANGUAGE
USED
COBOL
PL/1 and IBM 360/370
Assembler Language
IBM System/360
Assembler Language
IBM Assembler
Language
COMPUTER
HARDWARE
USED
64 K memory; 4 tape
drives; 3 disk drives;
has been used with
UNIVAC 1106, UNIVAC
1110, GE 625, IBM 360,
IBM 370, CDC 6400,
CDC 3100 and Honey-
well 2015.
256 K memory; 2314
or 3330 disk drives,
or IBM 360 or
IBM 370
65 K memory; 2 IBM
231 1 disk drives: IBM
360/40.
256 K memory: 4 IBM
2311 disk drives; IBM
360/40 or IBM 360/50
with 512 K memory or
IBM 370.
MAJOR
FUNCTIONS
Input; updating; mainte-
nance; editing; report
writing; query; retrieval;
indexing;
utility functions.
Input; updating;
maintenance; report
writing; retrieval;
interface.
Input; updating;
maintenance; retrieval;
query; utility functions.
Input; updating:
maintenance; query;
retrieval.
COST
Free acquisition; $500
•S5000 for implemen-
tation; utilization is
about 3 K/ record.
$1000 for annual
subscription; additional
operation costs.
$1400 for installation;
monthly rental is
$400-$550; monthly
maintenance is $150.
Monthly rental is
$450; additional cost
for other features.
REMARKS
Widely used among col-
lections; active
modification and
improvements;
broadly applicable;
highly flexible,
can interact with
other programs:
Widely used among
collections; active
modification and
improvements;
broadly applicable;
highly flexible;
can interact with other
programs; slow learning
Widely used among
collections; broadly
applicable; can
interact with other
programs; no future
changes planned; remote
terminal capability.
Limited ability to
interact with other
programs; entirely
supported and
controlled by IBM;
remote terminal
capabilities.
associated assistance curve; no terminal
program (MESH); capabilities,
remote terminal
capability.
105
ISIS
International Species
Inventory System
1973
Minnesota Zoological
Garden; St. Paul,
Minnesota.
Data documentation
and utilization for
zoo animals.
Unknown
IBM 370/158
Input; query;
retrieval; report
writing.
$ 1.00/specimen each
year; $15-$20 for
annual reports.
Limited utilization
by other collections;
limited adaptability
and flexibility;
mostly or possibly
entirely used by
STIRS
Set Theoretic
Information
Retrieval System
1965
Computing Center;
University of
Colorado; Boulder,
Colorado
Taxonomic classification
for systematic
biology.
FORTRAN and CDC
Assembly Language
CDC 6400; KRONOS
CDC disk
Input; updating;
query; retrieval;
miscellaneous
functions.
Free acquisition;
implementation
and utilization
costs are unknown.
Limited ability to
interact with
other programs;
technical help
limited.
CORSAIR 11
Computer Oriented
Reference System for
Automatic Information
Retrieval
1960’s
Research Institute
of Swedish National
Defense
Wide range of
documental services.
Unknown
IBM 7090/1401;
Flexowriter 2301
Input; index production
for name, place,
and subject;
object description.
Unknown
Limited utilization
by other collections;
does not interact
with other programs.
IRGMA
Information
Retrieval Group of
the Museum
Association
1967
Great Britain
General data
documentation and
utilization.
Unknown
IBM 360
Input; file merging;
inventory; catalog
output.
Unknown
Designed for
efficient interaction
with other programs.
MARK IV
None
196$
Informatics Incorporated;
Canoga Park,
California
Information retrieval;
inventory control for
business oriented data.
Non-procedural
language
IBM 360; OS, DOS.
or TDOS operating
systems.
Input; updating;
maintenance; editing;
report writing; query;
retrieval; indexing;
utility functions.
$70,000 or $40,000
(for non-profit
organizations) for
acquisition of program.
Marketed through the
Service Bureau
Corporation: broadly
applicable; highly
flexible; can interact
with other programs.
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